
Haw >^C 50 



loot 



1- 3 



/ 

THE 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND. 

BY ISAAC WATTS, D. D. 

»• ' 

"WITH 
CORRECTIONS, QUESTIONS AND SUPPLEMENT. 



By JOSEPH EMERSON, 

Principal of the Female Seminary, Wethersfield, Ct., 
Author of the Evangelical Primer, Lectures on the Millennium, &c. 



3&ebfsefc Sstmot^pe SStrftfoti, 



BOSTON- 
PUBLISHED BY JAMES LORING, 132 WASHINGTON ST. 



£5= The Editor indulges the helief, that this volume contains all the 
Instructions upon education, of much importance, ever written by the 
excellent Watts. The circumstances, under which the original work 
was composed and published, may account for its numerous inaccuracies. 
These, however, may be regarded as minute spots upon the face of a glo- 
rious luminary. That these should be wiped away, must be the desire of 
every friend to the great author. This has been attempted by one, who 
begs to he considered among the most ardent and devoted. The corrections 
relate principally to grammar, punctuation, orthography and superfluous 
words. 

TO TEACHERS. 

Beloved Fellow-Laborers, 

Permit me to assure you, that 1 have found no other human text-book, 
that appears nearly equal to this treatise of Watts, for interest and utility. 
Having taught it to sixteen classes, it has appeared brighter and brighter, 
like the finest gold. May you have occasion to estimate its solid worth 
still more and»more. 

To teach in the best manner, you must have your own plan. If in any 
measure, you adopt that of another, you must approve and use it as wholly 
y6ur own. It must become, as it were, a part of your very selves, like 
your daily bread. I shall rejoice, if any of you can derive assistance from 
the following 

HINTS FOR TEACHING WATTS ON THE MIND. 

1. Assign for a lesson from 3 to 8 pages. 

2. Mention any printed questions, which you would omit. 

3. Direct your pupils to read the lesson once, chiefly with a view to 
understand it. 

4. Let them read it again, to judge, whether the sentiments are true j 
to perceive their connection, and fix in the mind the leading thoughts. 

5. They may read it once more, ascertaining and committing to memory 
the answers to the questions. 

6. Fill your own mind and heart with the contents and spirit of the 
lesson. 

7. Ask your pupils the printed questions, keeping a record of their 
performances. 

8. Go over the lesson again, without record, with much lecturing, ques- 
tioning and plain talk. 

9. Make the utmost efforts to impress their minds with the truths and 
duties inculcated. 

10. Encourage them to state with freedom their inquiries and objections. 

11 . Give them questions to be answered in writing or otherwise, at a 
future recitation. 

12. Let their compositions be upon the subjects of their lessons. 

13. Let every 5th or 6th lesson be a review of the preceding 4 or 5, the 
pupils first reciting to each other, with mutual certificates, to be recorded. 

Form of Certificate. Miss A— B— has promptly and correctly recited to 
me — answers, in the last review. 

[Date] C D. 

14. Let them review the whole, and be faithfully examined at the close 
of each quarter. 

15 Inquire from time to time, their manner of studying. 

10. After two or three years, let them go through the course again, in- 
quiring particularly, how far they have practised the directions of Watts, 
and with what advantage. J. E. 

Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1833, 

BY JAMES LORINt?, 
in tire Clerk's Office of tire District Court of Massachusetts. 

"' 

• '^my And Navy 



\fp 








\B' 



EDITOR'S 

INTRODUCTION, 



1. Popularity of Watts on the Mind. Probably no othes 
work, upon the same subject, has been so highly aild so justly 
approved, as this little treatise of Watts — no other, upon which 
the hours of the reader and student have been so pleasantly 
and so usefully employed. And of all literary subjects, this 
seems to be the most important. 

2. Object of this work. The grand object, which the author 
keeps continually in view, and continually presses upon the 
reader's attention, is to' improve and enrich the mind ; " to teach 
the young idea how to shoot ;" to unfold and invigorate the 
faculties ;J to ; store the mind with the most useful knowledge 'J 
to nip the buds of prejudice ; to counteract its poison ;, to stay 
the tide of passion ; to emancipate the mind enthralled ; to ex- 
pand, to elevate and liberalize the views ; to form the habits ; 

|to subject every power, thought and pursuit, to the empire of 
reason ; to subordinate all to the service of God— in short, (to 
prepare the mortal and immortal part of our nature, for the 
greatest possible usefulness and enjoyment both here and 
forever. 

3. Usefulness of this work. Of all human compositions, then, 
this is probably the most useful for the young, as soon as they 
can understand itS Such a conclusion might be warranted, 
though we considered merely its immediate effect upon the 

Grand object of Watts of this trea- i To whose service, should every 

tise 1 What would he unfold and { thing be subordinate 1 

invigorate *] i For what, would he prepare the 

With what would he store the { whole of our nature 1 

mind? i What human composition seems 

What poison would he counter- \ to be most useful to the young 1 

act 1 i How early should they attend to 

What would he subject to the em- I it 1 
pire of reason 1 \ 



IV editor's introduction. 

mind. Much more must it appear just, when we consider, that 
the chief advantages of an acquaintance with this work, arise 
from its more remote influence. , It lays a foundation to pursue 
every other study, and to employ every other means of knowl- 
edge and improvement, in the best manner.; 

The unhesitating voice, of every examiner, seems to have 
been, " The work is excellent." It is, doubtless, the most ap- 
proved and admired,; of all the prose works of the great, the 
good, the candid, the liberal, the useful man, whose name it 
bears. It is not the growth of a day ; but the worthy product 
of twenty years — a product, from the choicest seed, in the 
richest soil, with the finest culture, beneath the most genial 
suns, and refreshing showers. 

4. Johnson s Encomium. "Few books," says Dr. Johnson, in 
his Life of Watts, " have been perused by me, with greater 
pleasure, than his Improvement of the Mind ; of which the ra- 
dical principles may indeed be found in Locke's Conduct of the 
Understanding ; but they are so ramified by Watts, as to confer 
on him, the merit of a work, in the highest degree useful and 
pleasing. Whoever has the care of instructing others, may be 
charged with deficiency in his duty, if this book is not recom- 
mended." 

5. This zoork, considered as a Logic. Considered as a trea- 
tise of Logic, it is probably superior to any work, bearing the 
name — better suited to answer the great and noble end of logic.'; 
The author, indeed, seems to have regarded this work as some- 
thing very much like a logic. Having some years before, pub- 
lished a treatise of logic, that had been well received, he thought 
" the learned world might possibly admit this as a second part 
or supplement to that treatise." 

But though the author considers it scarcely worthy to be 
called a treatise, yet to me, it appears greatly superior to the 
elder work, and in point of merit, much better entitled to be 
considered the first or principal part. There is another reason, 
why it should be considered the first part, at least, in the order 
of time, or in the arrangement of studies. It is much more 
easily understood. 

If, as it is generally and most justly acknowledged, /logic is 
the art of investigating and communicating truthj this little 
work, which the author was willing should pass for a mere 
Supplement, is perhaps better entitled to be called A Logic, 
than any other, that has yet appeared. Surely no other human 

For what, does an acquaintance \ encomium of this work 1 
with this work lay a foundation 1 I Meaning of encomium! 

What is the most approved of all I Character of this work, considered 
fche prose works of Watts 1 \ as a treatise of logic 1 

What great critic has given a high \ What is logic 1 



fEDITOR's INTRODUCTION. V 

production is suited to afford such a clear, steady, safe, bril- 
liant light, to direct, animate, and encourage us, in the path of 
knowledge. Its unrivalled simplicity and perspicuity of style, 
notwithstanding some minor faults, its lively and touching il- 
lustrations, its plain, sound and useful maxims and precepts, 
can hardly fail to recommend it to the understanding and heart 
of every lover of truth. 

6. Its Grand Characteristic. ■ Its grand characteristic is, that 
it is so practical. '<' While it is far enough from being an assem- 
blage of dry maxims, a mere compend of dogmas — while the 
^author most fully, clearly, and delightfully states his reasons, 
he is continually informing us, how to think, how to feel, how to 
converse, how to act, in order to grow wiser and better — " and 
better thence again, and better still, in infinite progression." 

7.\It most happily combines theory and practice. Probably 
in no other work of man, are excellent theory, practical direc- 
tion and illustration more happily combined. We are addres- 
sed, as being at once capable of the most noble speculation, and 
the most useful practice ; and each of these is made to reflect 
the most brilliant lustre, from the effulgence of the other. 
Perhaps it is not venturing too much to say, that probably this 
little volume contains a greater number and weight of useful 
directions, to aid us in the most important business of life, than 
are to be found in all the great works of Locke, Reid, Stewart 
and Brown. 

8. Should be faithfully studied. A work, so enriched with 
instructions — instructions, so excellent, so momentous — instruc- 
tions, which are continually needful, to regulate our conduct, 
and rouse our energies — instructions, that should be most fa- 
miliarly fixed in the mind, and seem to make a part of our very 
identity — a work, replete with such instructions should be 
studied ;* faithfully and laboriously studied. One or two hasty, 
or even thorough perusals of such a work, are by no means 
sufficient. 

9. Yet one reading may be useful. Not that in such a case, 
indeed, the time would be lost. One reading, and that a very 
rapid one, may prove of real utility to a vigorous youth, who 
pants for improvement. Though he may be able to retain 
scarcely a maxim or an idea, for a single year, yet his mind re- 
ceives impressions, that can hardly fail to be salutary. He is 
induced to form/a higher estimate of knowledge and mental 
improvement^ and his heart beats higher and more effectually 

Grand characteristic of this work ? i In what manner, should it be 

What information is the author j studied 1 
continually giving us 1 \ Of what, may one reading of this 

What does this work most hap- \ work induce a person to form a high- 
pfly combine 1 — Meaning of tiieory ? \ er estimate 1 
1* 



vi editor's introduction. 

for their attainment. Pride, egotism, prejudice, dogmatism, 
prating, reviling, &c. are here most powerfully assailed ; and 
though he gains but very faint and obscure views of these evils, 
yet he sees something of their odious deformities, and receives 
an impulse, to hate, avoid and shun them ; while on the other 
hand, he gains a glimpse of the beauty and loveliness of candor, 
docility, meekness, kindness, affability, liberality of feeling, 
and independence of thought, which urges him to assume and 
wear these more than earthly ornaments. An impression is 
thus made upon his feelings and habits, which tends to give a 
turn to his future pursuits, and to render him greater and bet- 
ter. It must be confessed, however, that in such a case, such 
happy results, would be very likely to be in a great measure, 
prevented by untoward circumstances. 

There is probably no other book, that will more richly reward 
the labor of ten or fifteen hours' cursory application. (The 
style is so luminous, the thoughts so weighty, the illustrations 
so striking, that it seems hardly possible to read a page of it, 
without some advantage. 

10. Watts a Pellucido" Perhaps no writer is more like the 
picture of his own favorite Pellucido, which he has so finely 
drawn, than Watts himself. "Sometimes," says he, "you 
will find a person, who in his conversion or his writings, deliv- 
ers his thoughts in so plain, so easy, so familiar and perspicu- 
ous a manner, that you both understand and assent to every 
thing he says, as fast, as you read or hear it. Hereupon, some 
have been ready to conclude in haste, " Surely, this man says 
none but common things. I knew as much before, or, I could 
have said all this myself." This is a frequent mistake. Pellu- 
cido was a very great genius. When he spoke in the senate, 
he was wont to convey his ideas in so simple and happy a man- 
ner, as to instruct and convince every hearer, and to enforce 
the conviction through the whole illustrious assembly ; and that 
with so much evidence, that you would have been ready to 
wonder, that every one, who had spoke, had not said the same 
things. But Pellucido was the only man, that could do it." 

11. Danger from this excellence. One evil, however, may 
result from this incomparable excellence of Watts. As we do 
not give him credit for half the instructions we receive from 
him, we are not so likely to ponder them, to fix them in our 
minds, and make special efforts to apply them in practice, as 
though they were more difficult, and had more of the charm of 
novelty. Doubtless, many might have derived much more 
advantage from this work, if it had not appeared so easy and 

Why is it hardly possible to read \ For what, are we not likely to 
a page of it, without advantage ? \ give the author full credit 1 



editor's introduction. vu 

familiar — so much like an old acquaintance and friend. Hav- 
ing read it once or twice through, and perhaps reviewed some, 
parts of it, they seemed to know almost the whole of it, while 
in fact, their practical acquaintance was almost nothing. They 
afterwards continued to talk at random, to dispute at random, 
to read at random, to think at random, &c. very much as they 
had done before. The admired maxims of Watts were not 
sufficiently known, to prove of any considerable advantage ; 
at least their utility was almost nothing, compared with what 
it mi,ght have been. Hence it appears exceedingly desirable, 
that this work should be studied, faithfully, laboriously and 
abundantly studied, and often reviewed and pondered. 

12. The knowledge of this work a great attainment. To be- 
come thoroughly acquainted with this work, to gain a familiar 
knowledge of all its practical instructions, to apply them con- 
tinually to the great business of thought, feeling and action, is 
a task far greater, than any person, at first, can easily imagine. 
I have been grieved and distressed, to find after the tenth pe- 
rusal — nay, after teaching its contents more than ten times — 
after lecturing and conversing much upon the various topics, I 
have been grieved and distressed, to find how many of its admi- 
rable precepts, I had but imperfectly learned, and more imper- 
fectly practised. Yet I cannot but indulge a hope, that this 
work has been of some advantage to me — that every hour, that 
I have spent in studying, pondering, teaching or recommend- 
ing its contents, has conduced to aid me in the regulation of 
my thoughts, feelings and pursuits — has conduced to render 
my practice less defective, than it otherwise would have been. 
Had I regularly and thoroughly studied it in my childhood and 
youth — had I been cheered and animated, by affectionate and 
ardent classmates, and aided by a kind, able and faithful teach- 
er, there is no doubt, that the advantage might have been in- 
comparably superior. O that it had been the appointed text 
book of my youth, instead of the immortal work of Locke. 

13. Should be taught to millions. It is my hearths desire and 
prayer to God, that millions of youthful students, of the pres- 
ent, and of future ages, may derive from this work, all the ad- 
Vantages, that I have realized — all that I might have gained, 
and much more. For such an object, I would gladly do some- 
thing more, than to wish and pray. Something more than 
this, 1 have indeed already done. For fourteen years, it has 
been my most delightful task, season after season, to instruct 
a class in Watts. No other literary branch, that I have taught, 
has been so gratifying to myself, and probably no other so 
interesting, or so profitable, to successive pupils. Under 
no other instructions, have I witnessed such manifest improve- 1 
mentof mind. 



viii editor's introduction. 

14. Different methods of teaching it. With different classes, I 
have pursued methods somewhat different, hoping, however, 
that I have been enabled to make some improvement from year 
to year, and certainly finding my task more and more delight- 
ful. So far from fading — so far from growing old and dry, this 
tree of intellectual life has appeared more green and more fra- 
grant every year. 

15. Written Questions. For some years, I have used writ- 
ten questions. Notwithstanding the labor of transcribing, the 
advantage of these has been manifest. IT he questions are doubt- 
less much better, than I could suggest extemporaneously; They 
direct the pupils' attention to the most important points of in- 
struction ; and are suited to rouse their attention to a particu- 
lar consideration of those points. But perhaps the most im- 
portant advantage is, by asking the same questions over and 
over, and especially by using them at examinations, forever to 
rivet the most important ideas in the mind. There is not the 
least reason to think, that this could be nearly so well effected 
in any other way. If the whole book were committed to 
memory verbatim, it is doubtful, whether the knowledge ac- 
quired, would be so much, or so permanent. Or if the pupil 
should learn all the ideas, so as to be able to answer every 
minute question, he would not be likely to distinguish between 
the more important and the less important ; and would be in 
danger of much sooner forgetting the whole together. 

16. It is an advantage of fixed questions, that they aid and 
encourage the pupils to question each other. It is most deeply 
to be regretted, that some distinguished teachers are disposed 
to object to the use of fixed questions, written or printed. Sure- 
ly their objections will not stand the test of judicious, faithful 
experiment, and sound philosophy. If questions already ex- 
tant, are not good, let them make and publish better. The 
method of using fixed questions, is undoubtedly the greatest 
improvement, that has been extensively adopted by teachers 
of the present age. Some extemporaneous questions, however, 
should be interspered with these,; to ensure the pupil's atten- 
tion to his whole lesson ; not that ne may become equally ac- 
quainted with every minute particular, but that he may have a 
clear view of the connection, and fully understand the most 
important parts. 

Which questions are likely to be i memory every idea, even the most 
best, written or extemporaneous 1 \ minute ? 

To what, do written questions \ What is probably the greatest im- 
direct the pupil's attention 1 \ provement, that has recently been 

Most important advantage of writ- \ adopted in teaching 1 
ten questions 1 \ Why should extemporaneous ques- 

Meaning of verbatim ? j tions be interspersed ? 

What if the pupil eommita to \ 



EDITORS INTRODUCTION. ix 

17. Printed Questions. Though some special advantages 
may result from using questions in manuscript, and from the 
pupil's transcribing them, it seems much better, on the whole, 
that they should be printed, fit saves the great labor of tran- 
scribing.'- This is more especially the case, when important ad- 
ditional questions, with answers, are thrown in among them. 
Such are a great number of the following questions ; at least, 
it is hoped, that they will be found valuable. These, with the 
answers, are to be considered a part of the Supplement. 

18. A Supplement to this work desirable. It seems pecu- 
liarly desirable, that this supplement, in a concise and cheap 
form, should be added to this work of Watts. The whole 
work of Watts on the Improvement of the Mind, may be con- 
sidered, as consisting of three parts. But the volume, bearing 
this title, so extensively circulated, and so much admired, con- 
tains only the first of these parts. This first part is longer, and 
unquestionably very much better, than the other two. Some 
parts of these two, however, are much more valuable, than 
some parts of the first, and may well constitute a part of the 
Supplement. Still more important parts may be drawn from 
his Logic. And here it is important to be considered, that the 
author seems to take it for granted, that those, who attend to 
his work on the Improvement of the Mind, are already ac- 
quainted with his Logic. In consequence of this, no doubt, 
the former work is considerably different, from what it other- 
wise would have been. s It seems, then, of peculiar importance, 
that some parts, at least, some ideas, should be taken from the 
Logic, to supply intentional omissions in the other work. Such 
supplement is here attempted. 

19. Definition- Questions. It is earnestly desired, that no 
one may be displeased with the questions, requiring definitions 
for answers. In proportion .to the ground they occupy, these 
may be found the most useful of all the questions. 

20. Importance of defining words. There is, probably, no 
other branch of literary education of equal importance, that is 
so neglected, or imperfectly taught, as defining — no other, that 
has now such demands upon the attention of teachers. It is 
often astonishing and grievous to see, how grossly ignorant are 
children and youth, and even men and women, of the meaning 
of important words and phrases — -an ignorance, which in gen- 
eral, they are very far from feeling or mistrusting. iThey can- 
not express their thoughts, for the want of words % and often 
they express thoughts, very different from what they intend, 
because they do not understand the words they employ. And 

Advantage of having the ques- \ Why are many unable to express 
tions printed, rather than in manu- j their thoughts ? 
script 1 \ Why do many express thoughts 



x editor's introduction. 

very frequently from the same cause, they take no idea, or 
wrong ideas, from what they read and hear. Probably, more 
than three fourths of the disputes, that have troubled the world, 
| have arisen from the ignorance or misapprehension of words. I 
"No doubt, one of the greatest reasons, why so little good is 
effected by preaching, is, that^the language of the preacher is 
but very imperfectly understood by most of the hearers. ) Said 
a venerable and pious lady to her little grandchild, just re- 
covering from sickness, " Now, you must be thankful." But 
the poor little child did not know — could not guess, the mean- 
ing of thankful ; and was afraid to ask. So her excellent in- 
struction was lost upon the child, at least for years, till he 
ascertained the meaning of the word. So it is, no doubt, with 
a great part of the instructions, that parents and teachers, as 
well as ministers, give to those under their care. 

A remedy for these various and abounding evils, is devoutly 
to be wished and sought. What is it ? Proper attention to 
the exercise of defining, is doubtless one of the remedies, and 
perhaps the best of all. And it would be easy to show, that all 
other methods must bo ineffectual to gain an accurate knowl- 
edge of words, at least of many words, without this. 

But the exercise of defining, may not only prevent much 
evil, but effect much positive good. When properly attended 
to, it is one of the best of exercises for improving at once the 
memory and the judgement, and storing the mind with useful 
knowledge. And when a good acquaintance with language, I 
mean the vernacular language, is once acquired, this knowl- 
edge is one of the best aids, ever devised by human ingenuity, 
to assist the reasoning faculty in the search of truth. W© 
make much use of words in thinking, especially in close think- 
ing ; and it is perhaps impossible to pursue a train of thought, 
to any considerable length, without their aid. But how often 
do we impose upon ourselves, and draw wrong conclusions, 
by imperfectly understanding the words, we silently and per- 
haps insensibly use, or by using them in different senses. And 
how often do we think in words, of which we have no definite 
understanding, flattering ourselves, that we are nobly investi- 
gating thoughts and things, while in reality, we are only mak- 
ing progress in pride and darkness. As words are only the 
signs of thoughts and things and the relations of things, so it 
is very important, in order to improve our acquaintance with 
thoughts, things and relations, that we should have a very clear 
and correct knowledge of the meanings of words, or the ob- 

different from what they intend 1 i What reason is mentioned, why 

What has caused a great part of \ so little good is done by preaching'] 

the disputes, that have troubled the \ What is mentioned as one of tho 

worWI 1 best remedies for ignorance of words? 



editor's introduction. xi 

jects, which they represent. This cannot be gained by attend- 
ing to the manner and connection, in which words are used, 
whether written, printed or spoken. This will often leave the 
sense very vague and indeterminate, or positively wrong. 

21. An acquaintance, with other languages will not give us a 
correct knowledge of English words. For, in the first place, 
all the English words derived from these three languages, do 
not constitute one fifth part of our language. 

In the second place, there is scarcely an instance, in which 
a knowledge of the original word can give us any precise idea 
of the meaning of its derivative. The fact is, that the mean- 
ing of almost every word, includes several ideas ; and when 
we borrow a word from another language, we scarcely ever 
use it, to signify just the same ideas, denoted by its original. 
For example, our words cap, captain, caption, capital, capitol, 
capitation, decapitate, are all derived from caput — a head. But 
they all differ in signification from caput, as well as from one 
another. There is, indeed, some resemblance among the sig- 
nifications of all. This makes it a little easier to learn and to 
retain their meanings ; but an acquaintance with these various 
meanings cannot be gained, but from other sources. The same 
might be shown by multitudes of other examples. fHence it 
has come to pass, that use and not derivation, is the law of 
language ;\and hence our word virtue has by no means, the 
same signification, as its original virtus. Hence too, it has 
come to pass, that a knowledge of the original word has often 
led the unwary youth to misunderstand and misuse its deriva- 
tive of different meaning. 

It is the grand object of the dictionary to tell us the sense or 
senses, in which our words are used by good writers and speak- 
ers. Derivation is but of secondary, and comparatively very 
little importance. It seems to be a matter, rather curious, than 
useful. Or perhaps it is useful, rather, because it is curious — 
because it tends to awaken in the mind, such a fondness for 
that noble and all-important science, philology, which has such 
an intimate and important connection with every literary and 
scientific pursuit. 

To learn the meaning of words, then, must constitute a capi- 
tal part of a good education. ( It should be begun, as soon as 
the child can distinguish between one word and another, and 
continued, as long as sight or hearing continue. The chief 
study in this pursuit, is that of defining, principally in the use 
of a dictionary. The best way of pursuing this study, is doubt- 
less in connection with other studies — to learn and fix in the 
li_ . 

What is the law of language 1 \ How soon should a child begin to 
What is the grand object of a l learn the meaning of words? 
dictionary ? f 



xii editor's introduction. 

mind, the definitions of the most important words, as they 
occur. The instructions of the lessons will greatly assist to 
fix in the mind, the definitions, and the definitions, to fix the 
instructions. To promote this exercise,. it is thought needful 
to have a large number of questions, to be answered by defini- 
tions. But the pupil should not content himself merely with 
learning these. He should consult his dictionary for the mean- 
ing of every word, that he does not clearly understand. Let 
him also consider the connection, and endeavor to gain the 
exact import, not only of each Word, but also of each phrase 
and sentence, as he proceeds. In this way, though his prOg-~ 
ress from page to page, will be slow, especially at first, yet it 
will be sure, and exceedingly conducive to mental improve- 
ment, and the acquisition of knowledge. 

22. Cursory reading of this work. It may be well, how- 
ever, in the first place, if the pupil is sufficiently improved to 
find it interesting, for him to devote two or three days to read 
through this work on the Mind, in rather a cursory manner, 
without stopping to look out words in a dictionary, or to com- 
mit ideas to memory. In this way, he may gain some general 
acquaintance with the subject, and also with the author's man- 
ner of thinking and writing, and thus become prepared , more 
readily to perceive the meaning and feel the force of any par- 
ticular passage. 

23. Webster's Dictionaries. It is deeply to be regretted, 
that dictionaries in common use are so exceedingly imperfect, 
as it respects the grand object. « Many important words are 
omitted, phrases are omitted, and most of the definitions are by 
no means what they should be." If the pupil can have the use 
of Webster's great dictionary in two volumes, he will find it a 
treasure of treasures. 'It is admirable indeed for the fulness 
of its vocabulary of words and phrases defined, for the excel- 
lence of its definitions, for its philological instructions, for its 
historical elucidations, and for its interesting and instructive 
examples of the various uses of words. In all these respects, 
except the last, it is vastly superior to Johnson's great work. 
If one of these could be in each of our schools, for the use of 
teachers and pupils, it would be of unspeakable advantage to 
our country. Next to this, the abridgement of the same work 
in one volume, is probably the best of all English dictionaries. 

In what respects, are most die- i mended? 
tionaries imperfect 1 \ What are some of the excellences 

What dictionary is here recom- \ of this dictionary 1 



WATTS'S 



PREFACE, 



In the last page of the Treatise of Logic, which 1 published 
many years ago, it is observed, that there are several other 
things, which might assist the cultivation of the mind, and its 
improvement in knowledge, which are not usually represented 
among the principles or precepts of that art or science. These 
are the subjects, which compose this book. These are the sen- 
timents and rules, many of which I had then in view, and 
which I now venture into public light. 

The present treatise, if it may assume the honor of that 
name, is made up of a variety of remarks and directions for the 
improvement of the mind in useful knowledge. It was col- 
lected from the observations, which I had made on my own 
studies, and on the temper and sentiments, the humor and con- 
duct of other men in their pursuit of learning or in the affairs 
of life .; and it has been considerably augmented by occasional 
collections in - the course of my reading, from many authors, 



Of what, is this treatise made up ? 

Meaning of treatise ? * , 

From what source*, was this trea- 
tise collected ? Experience, obser- 
vation and reading. 
I Difference between experience and 
observation 1 

What opportunity had Watts for 
experience ?. He was a close student 
for almost 70 years. 

What opportunity had he for ob- 
servation ? He was early a teacher ; 
and hard afterwards much intercourse 
with the best society. 

Where was he born ? At South- 
ampton in England. 

Which way is Southampton, from 
London ? 

In what year, was Watts born? 
In 1674. 



How old would Watts have been, 
if he had lived till the declaration of 
our independence ? — till this time ? 

What was his profession? He 
was a minister of the gospel. 
Where was he settled ? InLondon. 
Character of his piety ? He is gen- 
erally considered, as one of the most 
pious men, that ever lived. 

Character of his scholarship ? He 
was ranked among the greatest schol- 
\ ars of nis age. 

I General state of his health ? Very 
| feeble. 

{ His most distinguished work? His 
| Psalms and Hymns. 
? Advantage of knowing something 
! of an author ? His works are ren-' 
| dered more intelligible, and much 1 
\ more interesting. 



XiV WATTS'S PREFACE. 

and on different subjects. I confess, in far the greatest part 
I stand bound to answer for the weaknesses or defects, that 
will be found in these papers, not being able to point to other 
writers, whence the twentieth part of them, is derived. 

The work was composed at different times, and by slow 
degrees. Now and then, indeed, it spread itself into branches 
and leaves, like a plant in April, and advanced seven or eight 
pages in a week ; and sometimes it lay by without growth, 
like a vegetable in the winter, and did not increase half so 
much in the revolution of a year. 

. As these thoughts occurred to me in reading or meditation, 
or in my notices of the various appearances of things among 
mankind, they were thrown under those heads, which make 
the present titles of the chapters, and were by degrees, reduced 
to something like a method, such as the subject would admit. 

On these accounts, it is not to be expected, that the same 
accurate order should be observed, either in the whole book, 
or in the particular chapters, which is necessary in the system 
of any science, whose scheme is projected at once. A book, 
which has been twenty years in writing, may be indulged in 
some variety of style and manner, though Ihope, there will not 
be found any great difference of sentiment ; for wherein I had 
improved in later years, beyond what I had first written, a few 
dashes and alterations have corrected the mistakes. And if 
the candor of the reader will but allow what is defective in one 
place, to be supplied by additions from another, I hope, there 
will be found a sufficient reconciliation of what might seem at 
first to be scarcely consistent. 

The language and dress of these sentiments is such, as the 
present temper of mind dictated, whether it were grave or 
pleasant, severe or smiling. If there has been any thing ex- 
pressed with too much severity, I suspect it will be found to 
fall upon those sneering or daring writers of the age against 
religion, and against the Christian scheme, who seemed to have 
left reason or decency or both behind them, in some of their 
writings. 

The same apology of the length of years in composing this 
book, may serve also to excuse a repetition of the same sen- 
timents, which may happen to be found in different places, 
without the author's design ; but in other pages, it was intend- 
ed ; so that those rules for the conduct of the understanding, 
which are most necessary, should be set in several lights, that 
they might with more frequency and more force, impress the 
soul. I shall be sufficiently satisfied with the good humor and 

Who, does he say, must answer | How long was he in composing 
for the imperfections of this work on j this treatise ? 
the Mind? \ 



WATTS'S PREFACE. XV 

lenity of my readers, if they will please to regard these papers 
as parcels of imperfect sketches, which were designed by a 
-sudden pencil, and in a thousand leisure moments, to be one 
day collected into landskips of some little prospects in the re- 
gions of learning, and in the world of common life, pointing 
out the fairest and most fruitful spots, as well as the rocks and 
wildernesses and faithless morasses of the country. But I feel 
age advancing upon me, and my' health is insufficient to per- 
fect what I had designed, to increase and amplify these re- 
marks, to confirm and improve these rules ? and to illuminate the 
several pages with a richer and more beautiful variety of ex- 
amples. The subject is almost endless, and new writers in the 
present and in following ages may still find sufficient follies, 
weaknesses and dangers among mankind, to be represented in 
such a manner, as to guard youth against them. 

These hints, such as they are, I hope may be rendered some 
way useful to persons in younger years, who will favor them 
with a perusal, and who would seek the cultivation of their 
own understandings in the early days of life. Perhaps they 
may find something here, which may awake a latent genius, 
and direct the studies of a willing mind. Perhaps it may point 
out to a student now and then, what may employ the most 
useful labors of his thoughts, and accelerate his diligence in 
the most momentous inquiries. Perhaps a sprightly youth may 
here meet with something to guard or warn him against mis- 
takes, and withhold him at other times from those pursuits 
which are likely to be fruitless and disappointing. 

Let it be observed also, that in our age, (several of the ladies 
pursue science 'with success ; and others of them are desirous 
of improving their reason even(in the common affairs of life, as 
well as the men ; yet the characters which are here drawn oc- 
casionally, are almost universally applied to one sex ; but if 
any of the other shall find a character which suits them, they 
may, by a small change of the termination, apply and assume 
it to themselves, and accept the instruction, the admonition^ 
or the applause which is designed in it. 

I. W. 



In what manner,composed ? Often { What is it calculated to awaken ? 
by very short and hasty sketches. \ Meaning of latent ? — of genius 1 

Consequence of this manner 1 Irri- j What were several ladies then pur- 
perfections of style, and some repe- f suing with success ? 
tions. | Meaning of science! 

What prevented the author from \ In what were others desirous of 
improving this work, as he intend- ^improving their reason ? 
ed ?— Meaning of amplify ? j Meaning of lenity ?— of morasses 1 

For whom, is this work more par- | — of accelerate ?■— of momentous ? 
ticularly designed ? [ 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Editor's Introduction, 3 

Author's Preface, 13 

Importance of knowledge and mental improvement, . . 17 
Sixteen general rules for gaining knowledge and im- 
provement, 2Q 

Observation, reading, instruction by lectures, conversa- 
tion and study, compared, 37 

Rules relating to observation, ., 51 

Of reading and books, 59 

Judgment of books, T 74 

Of living instructions and lectures — of teachers and 

learners, 86 

Of inquiring into the sense and meaning of any writer 
or speaker, and especially the sense of the sacred 

writings, 91 

Rules of improvement by conversation, 97 

Of disputes, 113 

The Socratic way of disputation, 125 

Of study, or meditation, 129 

Of fixing the attention, 141 

Of enlarging the capacity of the mind, . 144 

Of improving the memory, 163 

Of determinining a question, 185 

Of inquiring into causes and effects, 202 

Of the sciences, and their use in particular professions, 206 



INTRODUCTION. 



IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE AND MENTAL 
IMPROVEMENT. 

No man is obliged to learn and know every thing". 
This can neither be sought nor required ; for it is utterly 
impossible. ) Yet all persons are under some obligation to 
improve their own understanding. Otherwise, (it will be a 
barren desert, or a forest overgrown with weeds and bram- 
bles. Universal ignorance or infinite errors will over- 
spread the mind, which is utterly neglected, and lies with- 
out any cultivation. 

Skill in the sciences is indeed the business and profession 
but of a small part of mankind. But there are many others, 
placed in such an exalted rank in the world, as allows them 
much leisure and large opportunities to cultivate their rea- 
son, and to beautify and enrich their minds with various 
knowledge. Even the lower orders of men have particular 
callings m life, wherein they ought to acquire a just degree 
of skill y and this is not to be done well, without thinking 
and reasoning about them.) 

Subject of the introduction ? \ is the mind, considered as capable of 

Difference between knowledge \ attending, &c. 
and mental improvement ? Knowl- } Why is no man obliged to learn 
edge is the store of information, 1 every thing? 

which the mind possesses. Mental \ What evil will be likely to result 
improvement is the progress of the \ from attempting to learn too many 
mental faculties. j things ? Nothing will be learnt well ; 

Meaning of progress'} j and the faculties will be injured by 

What is a mental faculty ? The j distraction, 
mind itself, considered as capable of { Meaning of distraction ? 
1 acting, feeling or existing, in a cer- f Who ought to improve their minds? 
tain manner or state. ? What will be the mind, if unim- 

How is this definition illustrated \ proved ? 
in the case of perception, attention, \ In what, should the lower orders 
memory, judgment and sensibility ? \ of men acquire skill ? 
Perception is the mind, considered \ What mental effort is necessary 
as capable of perceiving ; attention J for this ? 

2* i 



18 author's introduction. 

[ The common duties and benefits of society, which belong 
to every man living-, as we are social creatures, and even 
our native and necessary relations to a family, a neighbor- 
hood, or a government, 1 oblige all persons whatever to use 
their reasoning powers upon a thousand occasions. Every 
• hour of life calls for some regular exercise of our judgment 
as to times and things, persons and actions. Without a 
prudent and discreet determination in matters before us, we 
shall be plunged into perpetual errors in our conduct. Now, 
that which should always be practised, must at some time, 
be learnt. 

Besides, every son and daughter of Adam: has a most im- 
portant concern in the affairs of a life to come ; and there- 
fore, it is a matter of the highest moment for every one to 
understand, to judge, and to reason right about the things 
of religion. It is in vain for any to say, We have no leisure 
or time for it. The daily intervals of time, and vacancies 
from necessary labor, together with the one day in seven 
in the Christian world, allow sufficient time for this. If 
men would but apply themselves to it with half as much 
zeal and diligence, as they do to the trifles and, amuse- 
ments of this life, and it would turn to infinitely better 
account. 

Thus it appears to be the necessary duty and the interest 
of every person living to improve his understanding, to in- 
form hisjudgment, to treasure up useful knowledge, and to 
acquire? the skill of good reasoning, as far as his station, 
capacity and circumstances furnish him with proper means. 
I Our mistakes in judgment may plunge us into much folly 
and guilt in practice. .By acting without thought or reason, 
we dishonpr the God) that made us reasonable creatures, 
we often become injurious to our neighbors, kindred or 
friends ; and we bring sin and misery upon ourselves. For 
we are accountable to God our judge for every part of our 
irregular and mistaken conduct, where he has given us 
sufficient advantages to guard against those mistakes. 

About what subjects, is it most i desirable, that aU should acquire? 
important, that we should reason { Into what, may our mistakes in 
correctly ? j judgment plunge us ? 

Why is it in vain for any one to \ Whom do we dishonor, by acting 
say, that he has no time to attend to \ without reason ? — Why ? 
religion i I When are we accountable to God, 

What if men were as zealous for \ for our mistakes ? 
religious knowledge, as they axe for { What is Logic? The art of inves- 
trifles ? \ tigating and communicating truth ? 

What mental skill is it peculiarly | Meaning of investigate 7 



author's introduction. 19 

It is the design of Logic to give this improvement to the 
mind, and to teach us the right use of reason in the acquire- 
ment and communication of all useful knowledge ; though 
the greatest part of writers on that subject,; have turned it 
into a composition of hard words, trifles and subtilties, for 
the mere. use of the schools, and that only to amuse the 
minds and the ears of men with empty sounds, which flatter 
their vanity, and puff up their pride, with a pompous and 
glittering show of false learning ; and thus they have per- 
verted the great and valuable design of that science. 

A few modern writers have endeavored to recover the 
honor of Logic, since that excellent author of the Art of 
Thinking led the way. Among the rest, I have presumed 
to make an attempt of the same kind, in a treatise published 
several years ago, wherein it was my constant aim to assist 
the reasoning powers of every rank and order of men, as 
well as to keep an eye to the best interest of the schools, 
and the candidates for true learning. There I have en- 
deavored to show the mistakes, we are exposed to, in our 
conception, judgment and reasoning ; and pointed out the 
various springs of them. I have also laid down many 
general and particular rules, how to escape error, and attain 
truth in matters of civil and religious life, as well as in the 
sciences. 

But there are several other observations, very pertinent 
to this purpose, which have not fallen so directly under any 
of those heads of discourse ; or at least, they would have 
swelled that treatise to an improper size ; and therefore, I 
have made a distinct collection of them here, from various 
authors, as well as from my own observation, and set them 
down under the following heads. 

The learned world, who has done so much unmerited 
honor to that logical treatise, as to receive* it into our two 

Of what, does Logic teach us the I soning faculty ? Judgment. 

right use ? \ More exact definition of judgment? 

What is reason ? The faculty, by j The faculty, by which we perceive 

which we compare ideas, and draw \ relations. 

inferences. * Into what, has Logic been turned 

Meaning of inference ? A truth or j by many writers ? 

proposition, drawn from others. I What would Watts have us con- 

Technical name of the proposi- j sider this book, in relation to his 

tions, from which inferences are j treatise of Logic? \ 

drawn ? Premises. j Why have some thought, that it 

Meaning of technical ? j should rather be considered the first 

Another name for inference ■? Con- \ part ? Because it is more easily un- 

clusion. 5 derstood, and more interesting. 

More appropriate jiame of the rea- \ 



20 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 

flourishing universities, may possibly admit this as a second 
part or supplement to that treatise. And I may venture to 
persuade myself, that if the common and the busy ranks of 
mankind, as well as the scholar and the gentleman, would 
but transcribe such rules into their understanding, and 
practise them upon all occasions, there would be much more 
truth and knowledge found among men ; and it is reasona- 
ble to hope, that justice, virtue and goodness would attend 
as the happy consequences. 



CHAPTER I. 

SIXTEEN GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE AND 
IMPROVEMENT. 

I. Deeply possess your mind with the vast importance 
of a good judgment, and the rich and inestimable advan- 
tage of right reasoning. Review the instances of your own 
misconduct in life. Think seriously with yourselves, how 
many follies and sorrows you had escaped, and how much 
guilt and misery you had prevented, if from your early 
years, you had but taken due pains to judge aright con- 
cerning persons, times and things. This will awaken in 
you a lively vigor to address yourselves to the work of im- 
proving your reasoning powers, and seizing every oppor- 
tunity and advantage for that end. 

II. Consider the weaknesses, frailties and mistakes of 
human nature in general, which arise from the very con- 
stitution of a soul united to an animal body, and by this, 
subjected to many inconveniences. Consider the many 
additional weaknesses, mistakes and frailties, which are de- 
rived from our original apostasy from a state of innocence ; 
how much our powers of understanding are yet more dark- 
ened, enfeebled and imposed upon, by our senses, our 
fancies, our unruly passions, &c. Consider the depth and 
difficulty of many truths, and the flattering appearances of 

^ Of what, does the first chapter \ imperfection of the human faculties, 
consist ? ? the difficulty of many truths, and 

Substance of the first rule? We 4. human depravity, 
should realize the importance of good \ How does it appear, that the de- 
judgment and logic. \ pravity of the soul, does not neces- 

Whose misconduct should we re- \ sarily result from its connection with 
riew, in order to realize this ? \ the body ?— or that it does ? 

Causes of this misconduct ? The \ 



GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 21 

falsehood ; whence arise an infinite variety of dangers, to 
which we are exposed in our judgment of things.) Read 
with eagerness, those authors, that treat of the doctrine of 
prejudices, prepossessions, and springs of error, on purpose 
to make your soul watchful on all sides, that it suffer not 
itself to be imposed upon by any of them. See more on 
this subject, Logic, Part IT. Chap. 3. and Part III. Chap. 3. 

Illr A slight view of things so momentous, is not suffi- 
cient. I You should, therefore, contrive and practise some 
proper methods^ to acquaint yourself with your own igno- 
rance, and to impress your mind with a deep and painful 
sense of the low and imperfect degrees of your present 
knowledge, that you may be incited with labor and activity, 
to pursue after greater measures. Among others, you may 
find some such methods as these successful. 

1. Take a wide survey, now and then, of the vast and 
unlimited regions of learning. Let your meditations run 
over the names of all the sciences, with their numerous 
branchings, and innumerable particular themes of knowl- 
edge.; and then reflect, how few of them you are acquaint- 
ed with, in any tolerable degree. The most learned of 
mortals will never find occasion to act over again what is 
fabled of Alexander the Great, that when he had conquered 
what was called the Eastern World, he wept for more 
worlds to conquer. The worlds of science are immense 
and endless. 

What works should we read most I prejudice 1 Principally, by keeping 
eagerly, in order to correct our judg- | the attention upon one side of the 
ment? . I question. 

Meaning of prejud ice? A judg- 1 How does bad logic produce preju- 
ment without evidence, or a state of f dice 1 By using bad rules of reason- 
mind, that tends to such judgment. \ ing, or abusing good ones. 

Literal meaning of prejudice? Pre- ! To what interests, is prejudice in- 
judging. I jurious 1 To all — temporal, spiritual 

Are our prejudices in favor of per- I and eternal, 
sons and things, or against theml 5 How shall we cure our present 

Which prejudices are most nurner- \ prejudices, and guard against im- 
ous, those in favor of objects, or \ bibirtg more 1 By faithfully attend- 
those against them 1 Perhaps about j ing to logic, by studying the scrip- 
equal." 1 \ tures, by conversing with the wise 

At what age of life, are persons j and good, by watchfulness and pray- 
influenced by prejudice 1 \ er, and by the faithfulness of judi- 

When do persons most easily im- \ cious friends, 
bibe prejudice 1 \ Whose ignorance should we most 

When are prejudices strongest 1 { deeply feel and deplore 1 

Principal causes of prejudice 1 In- \ Meaning of deplore? 
dolence, wrong feelings and bad logic. 5 Mention some of the methods, that 

How does indolence produce pre- ? may lead us to feel our ignorance 1 
judicel By preventing proper ex- l Meaning ol immense? — of theorem, ? 
animation. \ — of demonstration? — of bewilder? '■— 

How does wrong feeling produce \ of vacuum? — of incredible? 



22 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 

2. Think, what a numberless variety of questions and 
difficulties there are, belonging even to that particular 
science, in which you have made the greatest progress, and 
how few of them there are, in which you have arrived at a 
final and undoubted certainty ; excepting only those ques- 
tions in the pure and simple mathematics, whose theorems 
are demonstrable, and leave scarcely any doubt. And yet 
even in the pursuit of some few of these, mankind have 
been strangely bewildered. 

3. Spend a few thoughts sometimes on the puzzling in- 
quiries concerning vacuums and atoms, the doctrine of 
infinites, indivisibles and incommensurables in geometry, 
wherein there appear some insolvable difficulties. Do this, 
on purpose to give you a more sensible impression of the 
poverty of your understanding, and the imperfection of 
your knowledge. ThisAvill teach you, what a vain thing it 
is to fancy, that you knOw all things^ and will instruct you 
to think modestly of your present attainments, when every 
dust of the earth, and every inch of empty space surmounts 
your understanding, and triumphs over your presumption. 
Arithmo had been bred up to accounts all his life, and 
thought himself a complete master of numbers. But when 
he was pushed hard to give the square root of the number 
2, he tried at it, and labored long in millesimal fractions, 
until he confessed there was no end of the inquiry ; and 
yet he learnt so much modesty by this perplexing question, 
that he was afraid to say, it was an impossible thing. It is 
some good degree of improvement, when we are afraid to 
be positive. 

4. Read the accounts of those vast treasures of knowl- 
edge, which some of the dead have possessed, and some of 
the living do possess. Read, and be astonished at the 
almost incredible advances, whifth have been made in sci- 
ence. Acquaint yourselves with some persons of great 
learning, that by converse among them, and comparing 
yourselves with them, you may acquire a mean opinion of 
your own attainments, and may be thereby animated with 
new zeal to equal them, as far as possible, or to exceed.; 
Thus let your diligence be quickened by a generous and 

What does it indicate, when we I probably in the wrong, 
are afraid to be positive 1 \ What, does the author say, should 

What is said of the fool in Prov. I animate us with zeal to increase our 
14 -. 16 1 \ attainments 1 

What conclusion may we draw, \ What is emulation 1 A desire to 
concerning a man, who appears out- \ surpass others, 
rageously confident <! That he is £ When is emulation wrong! When 



GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 23 

laudable emulation. If Vanillus had never met with Scitorio 
and Polydes, he had never imagined himself a mere novice 
in Philosophy, nor ever set himself to study in good earnest. 

Remember this, that if upon some few superficial acquire- 
ments, you exalt and swell yourself, as though you were a 
man of learning already, you are thereby building a most 
unpassable barrier against all improvement ; you will lie 
down and indulge idleness, and rest yourself contented in 
the midst of deep and shameful ignorance, "> Multi ad scien- 
tiampervenissent, si se illuc pervenisse non putassent. 

IV; Presume not too much upon a bright genius, a ready 
wit and good parts ; for this, without labor and study, will 
never make a man of knowledge and wisdom."/ This has 
been an unhappy temptation to persons of a vigorous and 
gay fancy, to despise learning and study. They have been 
acknowledged to shine in an assembly, and sparkle in dis- 
course upon common topics ; and thence they took it into 
their heads to abandon reading and labor, and grow old in 
ignorance. But when they had lost the vivacities of animal 
nature and youth, they became stupid and sottish, even to 
contempt and ridicule. Lucidas and Scintillo are young 
men of this stamp : they shine in conversation ; they spread 
their native riches before the ignorant ; they pride them- 
selves in their own lively images of fancy, and imagine 
themselves wise and learned. But they had best avoid the 
presence of the skilful and the test of reasoning; and 1 
would advise them, once a day, to think forward a little, 
what a contemptible figure they will make in age. 

The witty men sometimes have sense enough to know 
their own foible, and therefore, they craftily snun the at- 

' we desire to excel, merely for the j superficial attainment, what effect, 
isake of excelling. & j will it be likely to have upon our 

When is it right 1 When wede- i future progress 1 
5 sire to excel, for the sake of doing 1 Meaning of the Latin sentence, 
jgood. | Multi ad scientiam, &c. 1 Many might 

How will good emulation make } become learned, did they not fancy 
ius feel in relation to the improve- \ themselves such already, 
tments of others 1 To rejoice. j What is said under the fourth 

Effect of bad emulation in such a [ rule, respecting genius 'I 
icase 1 .To make us grieve. \ What, besides genius, is neces- 

Should emulation be encouraged I sary to make a person truly wise 1 
iiornotl Good emulation should be i Study and the Messing of God. 
^encouraged, and bad emulation op- I If persons neglect study in youth, 
;jposed. I what is likely to be the character of. 

Why is it, that some good men i their elder life 1 Contemptible, 
^profess to be opposed to all emula- I Why do witty men sometimes pre- 
lum 1 Probably, by mistaking the I tend to despise argument 1 Because, 
imeaning of the word. $ they cannot reason. 

If we exalt ourselves upon some \ 



24 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 

tacks of argument, or boldly pretend to despise and re- 
nounce them ; because they are conscious of their own 
ignorance, and inwardly confess their want of acquaintance 
with the skill of reasoning. 

V. As you are not to fancy yourself a learned man, be- 
cause you are blessed with a ready wit, so neither must 
you imagine, that large and laborious reading, and a strong 
memory, can denominate you truly wise. 

•'lit is meditation and studious thought,' it is the exercise 
of your own reason and judgment upon all you read, that 
gives good sense even to the best genius, and affords your 
understanding the truest improvement, i A boy of strong 
memory may repeat a whole book of "Euclid, yet be no 
geometer ; for he may not be able perhaps to demonstrate 
one single theorem.' ■ Memorino has learnt half the Bible 
by heart, and is become a living concordance, and a speak- 
ing index to theological folios, and yet he understands little 
of divinity. 

A well furnished library and a capacious memory are 
indeed of singular use toward the improvement of the mind. 
But if all your learning be nothing else but a mere amass- 
ment of what others have written, without a due penetra- 
tion into their meaning, and without a judicious choice and 
determination of your own sentiments, I do not see, what 
title your head has to true learning, above your shelves. 
Though you have read Philosophy and Theology, Morals 
and Metaphysics in abundance, and every other art and 
science, yet if your memory is the only faculty employed, 
you can justly claim no higher character than that of a good 
historian of the sciences. 

Here note, 'Many of the foregoing advices are more 
peculiarly proper for those, who are conceited of their abili- 
ties, and are ready to entertain a high opinion of them- 
selves. But a modest, humble youth of a good genius, 
should hot suffer himself to be discouraged by any of these 
considerations/ They are designed only as a spur to dili- 
gence, and a guard against vanity and pride. 

VI. Be not so weak, as to imagine, that a life of learning 
is a life of laziness and ease. Dare not give up yourself to 
any of the learned professions, unless you are resolved to 

What of reading, under the fifth i Meaning of concordance? 

rule 1 I What if a person has read much, 

What should we exercise upon all \ and scarcely employed any faculty 

we read 1 \ but memory 1 

What will this give to genius 1 \ What caution is given in the sixth 

What of Memorino 1 i rule, respecting a life of learningl 



GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 25 

labor hard at study, and can make it your delight and the 
joy of your life, according to the motto of our late Lord 
Chancellor King, Labor ipse vplwptas. 

It is no idle thing to be a scholar indeed. A man, much 
addicted to luxury and pleasure, recreation and pastime, 
should never pretend to devote himself entirely to the sci- 
ences, unless his soul be so refined, that he can taste all 
these entertainments eminently in his closet, among his 
books and papers. Sobrino is a temperate man and a phi- 
losopher, and he feeds upon partridge and pheasant, venison 
and ragoos and every delicacy, in a growing understand- 
ing, and a serene and healthy soul, though he dines on a 
dish of sprouts or turnips. iLanguinos loved his ease, and 
therefore, chose to be brought up a scholar | he had much, 
indolence in his temper, and as he never cared for study, 
he falls under universal contempt in his profession, because 
he has nothing but the gown and the name. 

VII.\Let the hope of new discoveries, as well as the 
satisfaction and pleasure of known truths, animate your 
daily industry." Do not think learning in general has ar- 
rived at its perfection, or that the knowledge of any par- 
ticular subject in any science cannot be improved, merely 
because it has lain five hundred or a thousand years, with- 
out improvement. The present age, by the blessing of 
God on the ingenuity and diligence of men, has brought to 
light, such truths in natural philosophy, and such discove- 
ries in the heavens and the earth, as seemed to be beyond 
the reach of man. But may not there be Sir Isaac New- 
tons in every science ? You should never despair, there- 
fore, of finding out, that which has never yet been found, 
unless you see something in the nature of it, which renders 
it unsearchable, and above the reach of our faculties. 

Nor should a student in divinity imagine, that our age 
has arrived at a full understanding of every thing, which 
can be known by the scriptures. Every age since the 
Reformation, has thrown some further light on difficult 

Meaning of the Latin phrase, La- i Meaning of unsearchable? 
bor ipse voluptas? Labor itself is \ Upon what, has light been thrown, 
pleasure. | in every age, since the Reformation 1 

Why did Languinos choose to be ? What reformation is here meant % 
brought up a scholar 1 \ The great reformation from Popery, 

How was he regarded in his pro- \ begun by Martin Luther. — When! 
fession 1 \ In 1517. 

To what, should the hope of new \ Why is it called the Reformation ? 
discoveries animate us 1 I By way of eminence, because itwaa 

In what cases, should we not des- | so great and important, 
pair of making discoveries 1 ; 

3 



26 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 

texts and paragraphs of the Bible, which had been long" 
obscured by the early rise of Antichrist y and since there 
are at present many difficulties and darknesses hanging 
about certain truths of the Christian Religion, and since 
several of these relate to important doctrines, such as the 
Origin of Sin, the Jfall of Adam, the Person of Christ, the 
blessed Trinity, the Decrees of God, &c. which do still 
embarrass the minds of honest and inquiring readers, and 
which make work for noisy controversy ; it is certain there 
are several things in the Bible yet unknown, and not suffi- 
ciently explained ; and it is certain, that there is some way 
to solve these difficulties, and to reconcile these seeming 
contradictions. And why may not a sincere teacher of 
truth in the present age, by labor, diligence, study and 
prayer, with the best use of his reasoning powers, find out 
the proper solution of those knots and perplexities which 
have hitherto been unsolved, and which have afforded mat- 
ter for angry quarrelling ? Happy is every man, who shall 
be favored of Heaven to give a helping hand toward that 
introduction of the blessed age of light and love. 

VIII. Do not hover always on the surface of things, 
nor take up suddenly with mere appearances ; but pene- 
trate into the depth of matters, as far as your time and cir- 
cumstances allow, especially in those things, which relate to 
your own profession.' "Do not indulge yourselves to judge of 
things by the first glimpse, or a short and superficial view 
of them ; for this will fill the mind with errors and preju- 
dices, and give it a wrong turn and ill habit of thinking, and 
make much work for retraction. 'N Subito is carried away 
with title pages, so that he ventures to pronounce upon a 
large octavo at once, and to recommend it wonderfully 
when he had read half the Preface. ) Another volume of 
controversies of equal size, was discarded by him at once, 
because it pretended to treat of the Trinity ; and yet he 
could neither find the word essence nor subsistences, in the 

By what, had those passages been j State of mankind during that age 1 

obscured 1— Literal meaning of Jlnti- \ Peculiarly holy and happy. See 

christ ? An adversary of Christ.— \ Isaiah 3 : 

Meaning of adversary 1 \ Meaning of obscure? — of embar- 

To what does Antichrist here re- \ rass7 — of solve! 

fer 1 The Papal power. \ If we judge of things by the first 

Meaning of Papal? \ glimpse, with what, will it fill the 

What age, is it very desirable, \ mind 1 

that we should aid in introducing'? \ What four things are generally 

What is that age generally called 1 5 necessary for thorough investigation 1 ? 

The Millennium. < Time, attention, patience and per- 

Meaning of Millennium ? 



GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 27 

12 first pages. {But Subito changes his opinions of men 
and books and things so often, that nobody regards him. 

As for those sciences, or those parts of knowledge, which 
either your profession, your leisure, your inclination or 
your incapacity, forbid you to pursue with much applica- 
tion, or to search far into them, you must be contented with 
an historical and superficial knowledge of them, and not 
pretend to form many judgments of your own on those sub- 
jects, which you understand very imperfectly. 

IX. Once a day^especially in the early years of life and 
study, Call yourselves to an account, and consider what 
new ideas, what new proposition or truth you have gained, 
what further confirmation of known truths, and what ad- 
vances you have made in any part of knowledge ; and if 
possible, let no day pass away without(sonie intellectual 
gain.^ Such a course well pursued, must certainly advance 
us in useful knowledge. It is a wise proverb among the 
learned, borrowed from the lips and practice of a celebrated 
painter, Nulla dies sine linea ; let no day pass without one 
line at least ; and it was a sacred rule among] the Pytha- 
goreans, that tlhey should every evening thrice run over the 
actions and affairs of the day, and examine, what their con- 
duct had been, what they had done, or what they had neg- 
lected ; and they assured their pupils, that by this method, 
they would make a noble progress in the path of virtue. 

Nor let soft slumber close your eyes, 
Before you've recollected thrice 
The train of actions thro' the day. 
Where have my feet chose out the way? 
What have I learnt, where'er I've been, 
From all I've heard, from all I've seen? 
What know I more, that's worth the knowing? 
What have I done, that's worth the doing? 
What have I sought, that I should shun? 
What duty have I left undone ? 
Or into what new follies, run? 
These self-inquiries are the road, 
That leads to virtue and to God. 



Why does no one regard the opin- \ day 1 

ion of Subito 1 \ Who were the Pythagoreans *! The 

Upon what subjects, should we I followers of Pythagoras, 

form scarcely any opinion 1 \ Who was Pythagoras 1 One of 

. How often should we inquire, i the greatest of the Grecian philoso- 

what new ideas we have gained 1 \ pliers. 

What gain should we endeavor to l What great Hebrew prophets were 

acquire every day 1 \ cotemporary vyith Pythagoras 1 Jere- 

llow many times did the Pytha- $ miah, Ezekiel and Daniel. 

goreans review the affairs of each \ Meaning of coteniporary ? 



28 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 

I would be glad among a nation of Christians to find 
young men heartily engaged in the practice of what this 
heathen writer teaches. 

X. Maintain a constant watch, at all times, against a 
' dogmatic spirit. . Fix not your assent to any proposition in 
a firm and unalterable manner, till you have some firm and 
unalterable ground for it, nor till you have arrived at some 
clear and sure evidence ; till you have turned the proposi- 
tion on all sides, and searched the matter through and 
through, so that you cannot be mistaken. And even where 
you may think you have full grounds of assurance, be not 
too early nor too frequent in expressing this assurance, in 
too peremptory and positive a manner, remembering, that 
human nature is always liable to mistake in this corrupt and 
feeble state. A dogmatic spirit has many inconveniences 
attending it : as, 

1. It stops the ear against all further reasoning upon that 
subject, and shuts up the mind from all further improve- 
ments Of knowledge. If you have resolutely fixed your 
opinion, though it be upon too slight and insufficient 
grounds, yet you will stand determined to renounce the 
strongest reason, brought for the contrary opinion, and 

frow obstinate against the force of the clearest argument, 
ositivo is a man of this character, and has often pronoun- 
ced his assurance of the Cartesian vortexes. Last year, 
some further light broke in upon his understanding, with 
uncontrollable force, by reading something of mathematical 
philosophy. Yet having asserted his former opinions in a 
most confident manner, he is tempted now to wink a little 
against the truth, or to prevaricate in his discourse upon 
that subject, lest by admitting conviction, he should expose 
himself to the necessity of confessing his former folly and 
mistake ; and|he has not humility enough for that. 

2. A dogmatic spirit naturally leads us to arrogance, and 
gives a man some airs in conversation, which are too 
haughty and assuming. Audens is a man of learning, and 
very good company, but his infallible assurance renders his 
carriage sometimes insupportable. 

Against what spirit, does the tenth I Why is Positivo unwilling to con- 
rule require us continually to watch 1 \ fess his errors 1 

Meaning of dogmatic ? I Meanin g of prevaricate 7 

When may we be firmly decided \ What airs does dogmatism give to 
in opinion 1 After faithful exam- \ conversation 1 
ination with clear evidence. I What sometimes renders the man- 

Against what, does dogmatism \ ners of Audens insupportable 1 
stop the ear ? i 



GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 29 

3. A dogmatic spirit inclines a man to be censorious. 
Every one of his opinions appears to him written as it were 
with sun-beams, and he grows angry that his neighbor does 
not see it in the same light. He is tempted to disdain his 
correspondents, as men of low and dark understanding ; 
because they will not believe r what he does. Furio goes 
farther in this wild track, and (Charges those, who refuse his 
notions, with wilful obstinacy l and vile hypocrisy . : He tells 
them boldly, that they resist the truth, and'sin against their 
consciences. 

These are the men, that when they deal in controversy, 
delight in reproaches. ;They abound in tossing about ab- 
surdity and stupidity among their brethren. They cast the 
imputation of heresy and nonsense plentifully upon their 
antagonists ; and in matters of sacred importance, they 
deal out their anathemas in abundance upon Christians 
better than themselves."^ They denounce damnation upon 
their neighbors, without either justice or mercy, and when 
they pronounce sentences of divine wrath against supposed 
heretics, they add their own human fire and indignation. 
A dogmatist in religion is not a great way off from a bigot, 
and ;is in high danger of growing up to be a bloody per- 
secutor^ 

XL Though caution and slow assent will guard you 
against frequent mistakes and retractions, yet you should 
get humility and courage enough fto retract any mistake,' 
and /confess an error J Frequent changes are tokens of 
i levity in our first determinations. Yet you should never be 
ii too proud to change your opinion, nor frighted at the name 
) of changling-. Learn to scorn those vulgar bugbears, which 
) confirm foolish man in his own mistakes, for fear of being 
) charged with inconstancy. I confess, fit is better not to 
judge, than to judge falsely ;\ftnd it is wiser to withhold our 
n assent, till we see complete evidence. But if we have too 
iisuddenly given our assent, as the wisest man does some- 
times, if we have professed what we find afterwards to be 
ilfalse, we should never be ashamed nor afraid to renounce 

With what, does Furio charge i What is a dogmatist in danger of 

fcthose, who refuse his notions 1 \ becoming 1 

Against what, does he say, they } Can you now mention three or 

isin 1 l four great evils of dogmatism 1 

When such men deal in contro- 5 What should we be willing to re- 

tversy, in what do they delight 1 • I tract 1— to confess 1 

Meaning of controversy'? \ Meaning of retract ? 

Meaning of antagonist? I Which is worst, to judge falsely f 

iof heresy?— of anathema? — of bigot? \ or not to judge 1 

3* 



30 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 

a mistake. That is a noble essay, that is found among the 
Occasional Papers, to encourage the world to practise re- 
tractions ; and I would recommend it to the perusal of 
every scholar and every Christian. 

XII. He, that would raise his judgments above the vul- 
gar rank of mankind, and learn to pass a just sentence on 
persons and things, must take heed of a fanciful temper of 
mind, and a humorous conduct in his affairs. Fancy and 
humor, early and constantly indulged, may expect an old 
age over-run with follies. 

fA humorist is one that is greatly pleased or greatly dis-~ 
pleased with little things ; who sets his heart much upon 
matters of very small importance ; who has his will deter- 
mined every day by trifles, his actions seldom directed by 
the reason and nature of things, and his passions frequently 
raised by things of little moment. Where this practice is 
allowed, it vull insensibly warp the judgment to pronounce 
little things great, and tempt you to lay a great weight upon 
them. In short, this temper will incline you to pass an un- 
just value on almost every thing that occurs ;,,and every 
step, that you take in this path, is just so far out of the way 
to wisdom. 

XIII. For the same reason, have a care of trifling with 
things important and momentous, or of sporting with things 
lawful and sacred. Do not indulge a spirit of ridicule, as 
some witty men do on all occasions and subjects. This 
will as unhappily bias the judgment on the other side, and 
incline you to pass a low esteem, on the most valuable 
objects. Whatsoever evil habit we indulge in practice, it 
will insensibly obtain a power x>ver our understanding, and 
betray us into many errors, (Jocander is ready with his 
jest, to answer every thing that he hears./ He reads books 
in the same jovial humor, and has got the art of turning 
every thought and sentence^into merriment. How many 
aukward and irregular judgments does this man pass upon 
solemn subjects, even when he designs to be grave and in 
earnest ? His mirth and laughing humor is formed into 



Meaning of humorist? i Scripture, or relate serious anec- 

Upon what, will this temper in- j dotes, for mere amusement 1 Never 
cline us to place an undue value 1 \ for mere amusement, though we 

With what things, should we not ? may sometimes relate such, as are 
trifle'] I amusing. 

With what subjects, is it peculiar- \ With what, is Jocander ready to 
ly criminal to sport 1 Religious sub- I answer every thing, that he hears 1 
jects. | Into what, does he turn every 

Should we mention passages of \ thought and sentence 1 ? 



GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 31 

habit and temper, and\leads his understanding shamefully 
astray.) You will see him wandering in pursuit of a gay 
flying feather, and he is drawn by a sort of ignis fatuus 
into bogs, and mire, almost every day of his life. 

XIV. -Oliver maintain a virtuous and pious frame of spirit;; 
for an indulgence pf vicious inclinations ^debases the un- 
derstanding, and perverts the judgment!) Whoredom and 
wine and new wine, take away the heart and soul and rea- 
son of a man. Sensuality ruins the better faculties of the 
mind. An indulgence of appetite and passion enfeebles 
the powers of reason ; it makes the judgment weak and 
susceptive of every falsehood, and especially of such mis- 
takes, as have a tendency towards the gratification of the 
animal ; and it warps the soul aside strangely from that 
stedfast honesty and integrity, that necessarily belongs to 
the pursuit of truth. It is the virtuous man, who is in a 
fair way to wisdom. "iGod gives to those, that are good in 
his sight, wisdom and knowledge and joy/' Ec. 2 : 26. 

Piety toward God, as well as sobriety and virtue, are 
necessary qualifications to make a truly wise and judicious^ 
man. |He, that abandons religion, must act in such a con-^ 
tradiction to his own conscience and best judgment, that 
he abuses and spoils the faculty itself. It is thus in the 
nature of things ; and it is thus by the righteous judg- 
ment of God.. Even the pretended sages among the Hea- 
thens, " who^did not like to retain God in their knowledge, 
^were given up to a reprobate mind ;" an undistinguishing 
or injudicious mind, so that they judged inconsistently, and 
practised mere asburdities.' Rom. 1 :28. 

And it is the character of the slaves of Antichrist, 2 Thes. 

What effect upon his understand- \ are good in his sight 1 
ing, has Jocander's laughing humor 1 J What is implied in being good in 
How 1 By diverting his attention \ the sight of God 1 A good life, and 
from the merits of the subject. \ a good heart. 

Meaning of ignis fatuus ? A me- \ How does it appear, that a good 
teor or light, that appears in the \ heart is implied 1 Because God 
night over marshy grounds. \ looks at the heart. 

What is it vulgarly called 1 Will ] What is implied in having a good 
with the wisp, or Jack with a Ian- \ heart 1 That we obey the law of 
tern. j God from the heart. 

, Figurative meaning of ignis fatuusl \ Two great commandments of the 
That which dazzles, to lead astray. \ law of God 1 Mat. 22 : 37, 39. 

What frame of spirit should we \ Tendency of acting contrary to 
maintain, in order to advance in * conscience and judgment 1 
knowledge and mental improve- I Whom were the Heathen sages un- 
menf? i willing to retain in their knowledge! 

What influence upon the mind, \ To what, did God give them up 1 
has vicious indulgence 1 | Meaning of reprobate mindl — of 

What does God give to those, who \ sage ?— of tranmbstanUation 1 



32 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 

f 2 : 10, &c. that those "who receive not the love of the 
truth," were exposed to the power of diabolical sleights and 
lying 1 wonders. When divine revelation shines and blazes 
in the face of men with glorious evidence, and they wink 
their eyes against it, the God of this world is suffered to 
blind them, even in the most obvious, common and sensible 
things. The great God of heaven, for this cause, " sends 
them strong delusions, that they should believe a lie ;" and 
the nonsense of transubstantiation in the popish world, is a 
most glaring accomplishment of this prophecy, beyond ever 
what could have been thought of or expected among crea- 
tures who pretend to reason. 

XV. Watch against the pride of your own reason, and a 
vain conceit of your intellectual powers, 'with the neglect 
of divine aid and blessing/ Presume not'upon great attain- 
ments in knowledge by your own self-sufficiency. Those, 
who trust to their own understanding entirely, are pro- 
nounced fools in the word of God : and it is the wisest of 
men, who gives them this character. " He, that trusteth in 

Jiis own heart,\ is a fool,",' Prov. 28 : 26. And the same 
^divine writer advises us to " trust in the Lord with all our 
heart, and not to lean to our own understandings, nor to be 
wise in our own eyes," Chap. 3 : 5,7. 

Those, who with a neglect of religion, and of dependence 
on God, apply themselves to search out every article in the 
things of God, by the mere dint of their own reason, have 
been suffered to run into wild excesses of foolery, and 
strange extravagance of opinions. Every one, who pursues 
this vain course, and will not ask for the conduct of God in 
the study of religion, has just reason to fear he shall be left 
of God, and given up a prey to a thousand prejudices ; that 
he shall be consigned over to the follies of his, own heart, 
and pursue his own temporal and eternal ruin.. And even 
in common studies, we should by humility and dependence, 
engage the God of truth on our side. 

XVI. Offer up, therefore, your dailv requests to God, 
the Father of lights, that he would bless all your attempts 
and labors in reading, study and conversation. Think with 

Against what form of pride, should \ How often should we pray for a 
we be peculiarly watchful ? ] divine blessing upon our intellectual 

What does the Scripture call him, f labors ? 
who trusts in his own heart? \ Meaning of clueT — of intricate? — 

What is there reason to fear, we \ of labyrinth 1 — of implore ? 
shall be left to pursue, if we do not I Meaning of a Latin phrase under 
geek the divine aid in the investiga- j rule 16? God is the source or be- 
iion of truth 1 \ ginning. 



GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 33 

yourself, how easily and how insensibly, by one turn of 
thought, he can lead you into a large scene of useful ideas. 
He can teach you to lay hold on a clue, which may guide 
your thoughts with safety and ease, through all the difficul- 
ties of an intricate subject." Think, how easily the Author 
of your being can direct your motions, by his providence, 
so that the glance of an eye, or a word striking the ear, or 
a sudden turn of the fancy, shall conduct you to a train of 
happy sentiments. By this secret and supreme method of 
government, he can draw you to read such a treatise, or to 
converse with such a person, who may give you more light 
into some deep subject in an hour, than you could obtain by 
a month of your own solitary labor. 

Think with yourself, with how much ease the God of 
spirits can cast into your mind, some useful suggestion, and 
give a happy turn to your own thoughts, or the thoughts of 
those, with whom you converse, whence you may derive 
unspeakable light and satisfaction in a matter, that has long 
puzzled and entangled you. He can show you a path, 
" which the vulture's eye has not seen," and lead you by 
$ome unknown gate or portal, out of a wilderness and laby- 
rinth of difficulties, wherein you have been long wander- 
ing- ..." 

Implore constantly his divine grace, to point your incli- 
nation to proper studies, and to fix your heart there. He 
can keep off temptations on the right hand and on the left, 
both by the course of his providence, and by the secret and 
insensible intimations of his Spirit. He can guard your un- 
derstanding from every evil influence of error, and secure 
you from the danger of evil books and men, which might 
otherwise have a fatal effect, and lead you into pernicious 
mistakes. 

Nor let this sort of advice fall under the censure of the 
godless and profane, as a mere piece of bigotry or enthusi- 
asm, derived from faith and the bible ; for the reasons, 
which I have given to support this pious practice of in- 
voking the blessing of God on our studies, are derived from 
the light of nature as well as revelation. He, that made 
our souls, and is the Father of spirits, shall he not be sup- 
posed to have a most friendly influence toward the instruc- 
tion and government of them ? The Author of our rational 
powers can involve them in darkness, when he pleases, by 
a sudden distemper, or he can abandon them, to wander 
into dark and foolish opinions, when they are filled with a 
vain conceit of their own light. He expects to be acknowl- 



34 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 

edged in the common affairs of life, and he does as cer- 
tainly expect it in the superior operations of the mind, and 
in the search of knowledge and truth. . The Latins were 
taught to say, A Jove principium musce. In the works of 
learning, they thought it necessary to begin with God. 
Even the poets call upon the muse as a goddess, to assist 
them in their compositions. ■ 

' The first lines of Homer in his Iliad and Odyssey, the 
first line of Museus in his song of Hero and Leander, the 
beginning of Hesiod in his poem of Works and Days, and 
several others, furnish us with sufficient examples of this 
kind. Nor does Ovid leave out this piece of devotion, as 
he begins his stories of the Metamorphosis. Christianity 
so much the more obliges us by the precepts of Scripture, 
to invoke the assistance of the true God in all our labors of 
the mind, for the improvement of ourselves and others. 
Bishop Saunderson says, thatfstudy without prayer is athe- 
ism, as well as, that prayer without study is presumption. 
And we are still more abundantly encouraged by the testi- 
mony of those who have acknoAvl edged from their own 
experience, that sincere prayer was no hinderance to their 
studies. They have gotten more knowledge sometimes upon 
their knees, than by their labor in perusing a variety of au- 
thors ; and they have left this observation for such as follow, 
Bene orasse est bene studuisse. Praying is the best studying. 
To conclude, let industry and devotion join together; 
and you need not doubt the happy success, rrov. 2 : 1 — 6. 
" My son, if thou wilt receive my words, and hide my com- 
mandments within thee ; so that thou incline thine ear unto 
wisdom, and apply thine heart to understanding ; yea, if 
thou criest after knowledge, and liftest up thy voice for un- 
derstanding ; if thou seekest her as silver, and searchest 
for her as for hid treasures ; then shalt thou understand the 
fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God. For the 
Lord giveth wisdom : out of his mouth cometh knowledge 
and understanding." 

Note I, by the Editor. 

[Prayer for instruction. — It is earnestly desired, that these 
excellent remarks of Watts upon prayer in connection with 
study, may not be lost upon a single pupil. May he attend 
to them closely, ponder them deeply, and improve them 

According to Bishop Saunderson, \ What desire is expressed in the 
what is study without prayer 1— \ beginning of Note 1.1 
prayer without study 1 \ 



GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 35 

faithfully. Perhaps there is no other subject, which in pro- 
portion to its importance, has been so little regarded in the 
pursuit of literature as prayer. If we would gain knowl- 
edge, we should seek it from the Father of lights. If we 
would have a wise and understanding heart, we should 
seek it from Him, whose understanding is infinite ; not in 
the way of sloth and idleness, but in the assiduous use of 
the appointed means. We must dig for knowledge, as 
well as cry for it. He,re the pupil is advised, to turn to that 
admirable passage in Prov. 2 : 1—9, and study these verses, 
till he can almost or quite repeat them ; and endeavor to 
understand and feel and relish the weighty thoughts. He 
is also advised,not only to offer his daily prayer for di- 
vine instruction, but to put up two or three short petitions, 
as he commences the study of each lesson. They may 
be purely extemporaneous or not ; they may be compos- 
ed by himself or others; they may be read or repeated. 
These circumstances are of no importance, provided the 
prayer is breathed forth, from a contrite and fervent heart. 
Perhaps some of the following forms may be helpful to 
those, who have had little or no experience in crying to 
God after knowledge, and lifting up their voice for under- 
standing. 

Form of Prayer for a Student. — O thou Father of lights 
and God of grace, I beseech thee, to pardon my unworthi- 
ness, to enlighten my mind, to invigorate my faculties, to 
quicken my attention, to deliver me from prejudice, and 
enable me to pursue my study with great success, that I 
may be prepared for usefulness and glory, for the Redeem- 
er's sake. 

Another. — O thou Sun of righteousness, thou Light of the 
world, I entreat thee to enlighten my soul. Shine upon 
the pages befoie me. May I understand them. May I be 
enabled to distinguish between the precious and the vile. 
If they contain any thing, not true, may I be enabled to 

On what special occasions, should i cure the special blessing of God upon 
we pray, that God would aid us in j our efforts, 
gaining knowledge 1 j What use may we make of the 

Should we pray extemporaneous- \ following forms of prayer 1 
ly, or otherwise ) How must we i Should we confine ourselves to 
pray, in order that our prayers may { these 1 By no means, 
avail 1 X What if we do not need them 1 

How can prayer conduce to fur- \ It will be better to pray without 
nish our minds with knowledge ? \ them. 

It tends to make us love it more ar- \ What if students were as much 
dently, to seek it more vigorously, i engaged in seeking knowledge from 
patiently and candidly, and to pro- \ God as from books ? 



36 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. » 

perceive and reject it ; and whatever is true and important, 
may I hide in my heart, and improve it to thy glory, and the 
good of mankind, for Christ's sake. 

Another. — O thou gracious Giver of every good gift, I 
desire to bless and praise thee, that there is a spirit in man, 
and thy inspiration gives him understanding ; that thou hast 
thus exalted him above the beasts of the field and the fowls 
of heaven. I beseech thee to increase my understanding, 
that every faculty may be greatly improved and invigora- 
ted ; that every lesson may add to the precious stock of" 
knowledge, and that it may conduce to the good of man- 
kind, and my own immortal benefit, through Jesus Christ 
the Redeemer, to whom be glory everlasting. Amen. 

Another. — Most great and gracious God, I desire forever 
to bless and praise thee, for the noble faculties of my soul. 
I have reason to blush and to be ashamed, that I have made 
so little effort for their improvement. O Lord, how have I 
hated instruction, and despised reproof. I beseech thee to 
forgive my great transgression, and all my other transgres- 
sions, and enable me hereafter most vigorously and de- 
voutly to improve all my means of knowledge and under- 
standing, and prepare for life eternal, for the Redeemer's 
sake. 

Form of Prayer for the use of one who is studying the 
Scriptures. — O God of nature and of grace ; Father of an- 
gels and of saints, I bless thee for the light of sun, moon 
and stars. But more especially would I praise thee, for the 
light of redemption ; the light that beams forth from the 
face of Jesus, that glows on the pages of thy holy word. 
To this holy word, may I ever take heed, as to a light, 
shining in a dark place. .O Lord, I beseech thee to show 
me thy glory ; teach me Wondrous things out of thy law ; 
open my understanding, that I may understand the Scrip- 
tures ; quicken my memory, to retain th/ truth ; and my 
heart, to obey it; that by thy word' and Spirit, I may be 
trained for everlasting life, through Jesus Christ, to whom 
be honor, praise, dominion and glory forever. Amen. 

Another. — Father of lights, and Fountain of knowledge, 
I thank thee for the Bible — that all Scripture is given by 
thy inspiration, and that it is profitable for doctrine, for re- 
proof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness. May 
it be thus profitable to me. May I read it with close and 
devout attention, with understanding, with love. May it 
be the joy and rejoicing of my soul, and may it nourish me 
up into everlasting life^for Christ's sake. Amen. 



THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 37 

Another. — O Lord, I entreat thee, to assist me in reading 
thy word. May I receive it into a good and honest heart. 
May it conduce to make me perfect, to furnish me for every 
good, and to prepare me for heaven, for Christ's sake. Amen. 

If students, were as much engaged to seek knowledge 
from God, as they are to gain information from books, no 
doubt it would have a most happy influence to hasten the 
blessed day., when the watchmen shall see eye to eye, and 
the earth be filled with the knowledge and salvation of the 
Lord.] 



CHAPTER II. 

OBSERVATION, READING, INSTRUCTION BY LECTURES, 
CONVERSATION AND STUDY, COMPARED.; 

There are five eminent means or methods, whereby the 
mind is improved in the knowledge of things, and these are 
observation, reading, instruction by lectures, conversation 
and meditation ; which last in a most peculiar manner, is 
called study. 

Let us survey the general definitions or descriptions of 
them all. 

I. Observation is the notice, that we take of all occur- 
rences in human life, whether they are sensible or intel- 
lectual, whether relating to persons or things, to ourselves 
or others. It is this, that furnishes us, even from our in- 
fancy, with a rich variety of ideas and propositions, words 
and phrases. It is by this, we know, that fire will burn, 
that the sun gives light, that a horse eats grass, that an 
acorn produces an oak, that man is a being capable of rea- 
soning and discourse, that our judgment is weak, that our 
mistakes are many, that our sorrows are great, that our 
bodies die, and are carried to the grave, and that one gen- 
eration succeeds another. All those things, which we see, 
which we hear or feel, which we perceive by sense or con- 
Subject of the second chapter 1 I first— conversation next 1 
General view of the Five Methods \ What is observation ? The notice 
of gaining instruction. I we take of objects. 

What are the five methods of in- \ Where are those objects in rela- 
stmction ? \ tion to ourselves ? Some of them 

What is the best arrangement of \ are within us, and some, without us. 
these 1 I What objects can we observe with- 

Why should observation be placed | in us ? 
4 



38 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 

sciousness, or which we know in a direct manner, with 
scarcely any exercise of our reflecting faculties, or our 
reasoning powers, may be included under the general name 
A of observation. 

When this observation relates to any thing, that immedi- 
ately concerns ourselves, and of which we are conscious, it 
may be called experience. So I am said to know or expe- 
rience, that I have in myself a power of thinking, fearing, 
loving, &c. that I have appetites and passions, working in 
me, and that many personal occurrences have attended me 
in this life. 

Observation therefore includes all that Mr. Locke means 
by sensation and reflection. 

When we are searching out the nature or properties of 
any being, by various methods of trial ; or when we apply 
some active powers, or set some causes at work, to observe, 
what effects they would produce, this sort of observation is 
called experiment. So, when I throw a bullet into water, I 
find it sinks ; and when I throw the same bullet into quick- 
silver, I see it swims ; but if I beat out this bullet into a 
thin, holloAv shape, like a dish, then it will swim in the 
water too. So, when I strike two flints together, I find 
they produce fire; Avhen I throw a seed into the earth, it 
grows up into a plant. 

All these belong to the first method of knowledge, which 
I call observation. 

II. Reading is that means or method of knowledge, 
whereby we acquaint ourselves with what other men have 
published to the world, in their writings. These arts of read- 
ing and writing are of infinite advantage ; for by them, we 
are made partakers of the sentiments, observations, reason- 
ings and improvements of all the learned world, in the most 
remote nations, and in former ages, almost from the begin- 
ing of mankind. 

Name of this inward observation 1 I How? By using methods of in- 
More technical name 1 Consci- \ struction, and presenting motives, 
ousness. I Meaning of motive? 

General meaning of observation? \ Two grand distinctions in read- 
Notice of external objects. \ ing? Silent and audible. 

By how many senses, do we ob- \ Meaning of audible? 
serve externals'! — What are they? \ Design of silent reading l^ofau- 

When we employ causes, in order \ dible ? 
to witness their effects, what is the j Which kind of reading does the 
operation called 1 \ author here mean 1 

Mention some experiments. \ Of what, may we be made par- 

Can we make experiments upon { takers by means of reading'? 
juinds 1 



THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 39 

III. Public or private lectures are such verbal instruc- 
tions, as are given by a teacher, while the learners attend 
in silence. This is the way of learning religion from the 
pulpit, or philosophy or theology from the professor's chair, 
or mathematics, by a teacher, showing us various theorems 
or problems, that is, speculations or practices, by demon- 
stration and operation, with all the instruments of art neces- 
sary to those operations. 

IV. Conversation is another method of improving our 
minds, wherein by mutual discourse and inquiry, we learn 
the sentiments of others, as well as communicate our senti- 
ments to them, in the same manner. Sometimes indeed, 
though both parties speak by turns, yet the advantage is 
only on one side ; as when a teacher and a learner meet 
and discourse together ; but frequently the profit is mutual. 
Under this head of conversation, we may also rank dis- 
putes of various kinds. 

V. Meditation or study includes all those exercises of 
mind, whereby we render all the former methods useful for 
our increase in true knowledge and wisdom. It is by 
meditation, we come to confirm our memory of things, that 
pass through our thoughts in the occurrences of life, in our 
own experiences, and in the observations we make. It is 
by meditation, that we draw various inferences, and estab- 
lish in our minds general principles of knowledge. It is by 
meditation, that we compare the various ideas, which we 
derive from our senses, or from the operations of our souls, 
and join them in propositions. It is by meditation, that we 
fix in our memory, whatsoever we learn, and form our own 
judgment of the truth or falsehood, the strength or weak- 
ness, of what others speak or write. It is meditation, or 

What are lectures 'J i What is a proposition 1 An as- 

What common religious exercise ? sertion, in which one thing is de- 
may be considered lecturing 1 \ clared respecting another. 

What is conversation 1 Mutual \ Grand excellence or defect of every 
discourse. — Meaning of mutual? \ proposition 1 Every proposition is 

Meaning of conversation, as used \ either true or false, 
in Scripture 1 \ What does every truth become, 

Which of the five methods is pe- \ when expressed! A true proposi- 
culiarly fitted to render the others \ tion. 
usefu} 1 | What does every falsehood be- 

What word does Watts here use \ come, when expressed 1 A false 
as synomymous with meditation? \ proposition. 

Meaning of synonymous? \ What is a proposition, existing 

By what exercise, do we general- I merely in the mind, without being 
ly fix ideas in the memory 1— draw \ expressed! A mental proposition, 
inferences !— join our ideas, so as to \ What is the grand business of 
form propositions 1 \ logic 1 To ascertain, whether pro- 



40 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 

study, that draws out long chains of argument, and searches 
and finds deep and difficult truths, which before lay con- 
cealed in darkness. 

It would be a needless thing to prove, that our own soli- 
tary meditations, together with the few observations, that 
the most part of mankind are capable of making, are not 
sufficient of themselves, to lead us into the attainment of 
any considerable proportion of knowledge, at least in an 
age so much improved as ours, without the assistance of 
conversation and reading, and other proper instructions, 
that are to be attained in our days. Yet each of these five 
methods has its peculiar advantages, whereby they assist 
each other ; and its peculiar defects, which need to be sup- 
plied by the others' assistance. Let us trace over some of 
the particular advantages of each. 

I. One method of improving the mind is observation ; 
and the advantages of it are these. 

1. It is owing to observation, that our mind is furnished 
with the first, simple and complex ideas. It is this, lays the 
foundation of all knowledge ; and makes us capable of 
usino- the other methods for improving the mind. For, if 
we aid not attain a variety of sensible and intellectual 
ideas, by the perception of outward objects, by the con- 
sciousness of our own appetites and passions, pleasures and 
pains, and by inward experience of the actings of our own 
spirits, it would be impossible either for men or books to 
teach us any thing. It is observation, that must give ua 
our first ideas of tilings, as it includes sense and conscious- 
ness. 

2. All our knowledge, derived from observation, whether 
it be of single ideas or of propositions, is knowledge gotten 
at first hand. Hereby, we see and know things, as they 
are, or as they appear to us ; we take the impressions of 
them on our minds, from the original objects themselves ; 
which give a clearer and stronger conception of things. 
These ideas are more lively ; and the propositions, at least 
in many cases, are much more evident. Whereas, what 

positions are true or false. { lences of observation 1 

What may we infer from this 1 \ What are they 1 From observa- 
That the subject of propositions is i tion, we receive our first ideas — 
exceedingly important, as it is a sub- \ ideas at first hand — ideas more clear 
ject, with which all truth is inti- \ and lively— foundation of all other 
mately connected. \ ideas — gain continually. 

Which of the 5 methods has its I From what, do we take impres- 
peculiar excellences and defects 1 \ sions of things, by observation 1 
How many are the chief excel- \ 



THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 41 

knowledge we derive from lectures, reading and "conversa- 
tion, 'is but the copy of other men's ideas ; that is, the pic- 
ture of a picture ; and is one remove further from the 
original. 

3. Another advantage of observation is, that we may 
gain knowledge all the day long, and every moment of our 
lives ; and every moment of our existence, we may be add- 
ing something to our intellectual treasures, except only 
while we are asleep ; and even then,; the remembrance of 
our dreamings will teach us some truths, and lay the foun- 
dation for a better acquaintance with human nature, both in 
its powers and frailties^ 

II. The next way of improving the mind is by reading ; 
and the advantages are such as these. 

1. By reading, we acquaint ourselves, in a very exten- 
sive manner, Avith the affairs, actions and thoughts of the 
living and the dead, in the most remote nations, and in most 
distant ages ; and that with as much ease, as though they 
lived in our' own age and nation. By reading, we may 
learn something from all parts of mankind. Whereas by 
observation, we learn all from ourselves, and only what 
comes within our own direct cognizance. By conversation,, 
we can only enjoy the assistance of a very few persons, 
namely, those who are near us, and live at the same time. 
But our knowledge is much more narrowed still, if we con- 
fine ourselves merely to our own solitary reasonings, with- 
out much observation or reading ; for then, all our improve- 
ment must arise only from our own inward powers and 
meditations. 

2. By reading, we learn not only the actions and the 
sentiments of distant nations i and ages, but we transfer to 
ourselves, the knowledge and improvements of the most 
learned men, the wisest and the best of onankind, when or 
wheresoever they lived. For though many books have 
been written by weak and injudicious persons, yet the most 
of those books, which have obtained great reputation in the 
world, are the products of great and wise men in their 

Of what, are the ideas derive.d i learn — consult dictionaries — choose 
from lectures, reading and con versa- ! our companions — dismiss them at 
tion, the copies 1 \ pleasure. 

With what, may we gain some \ To what objects, are we limited 
acquaintance, by means of dreams'] I in observation 1 

Chief advantages of reading? By \ To what sources of knowledge, 
reading, we may converse with the \ are we confined in conversation'? 
remotest ages and nations — with the \\ Principally to cotemporaries and 
wisest and best of men — learn their ? neighbors. 
best thoughts — review what we ? 

4* 



42 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 

several ages and nations ; whereas we can obtain the con- 
versation and instruction of those only, who are within the 
reach of our dwelling, or our acquaintance, whether they are 
wise or unwise ; and sometimes that narrow sphere scarce- 
ly affords any person of great eminence in wisdom or learn- 
ing, unless our instructor happens to have this character. 
And as for our own study and meditations, even when we 
arrive at some good degrees of learning, our advantage for 
further improvement in knowledge by them, is still far more 
contracted, than what we may derive from reading. 

3. When we read good authors, we learn the best senti- 
ments, even of those wise and learned men. For they 
studied hard, and committed to writing, their maturest 
thoughts, and the result of their long study and experience. 
Whereas, by conversation, and in some lectures, we obtain, 
many times, ,only the present thoughts of our tutors or 
friends, which, though they may be bright and useful, yet, 
at first perhaps, may be sudden and indigested, and are 
mere hints, which have risen to no maturity. 

4. It is another advantage of reading, that we may re- 
view what we read ; we may consult the page again and 
again, and meditate on it, at successive seasons, in our 
serenest and retired hours, having the book always at hand. 
But what we obtain by conversation and lectures, is often- 
times lost, as soon as the company breaks up, or at least, 
when the day vanishes ; unless we happen to have the tal- 
ent of a good memory, or quickly retire, and note down, 
what remarkables we have found in these discourses. And 
for the same reason, and for want of retiring and writing, 
many a learned man has lost several useful meditations of 
his own, and could never recal them. 

III. The advantages of verbal instructions by public or 
private lectures, are these. 

1. There is something more sprightly, more delightful 
and entertaining in the living discourse of a wise, learned 
and well qualified teacher, than in silent reading. The 
very turn of voice, the good pronunciation, and the polite 
and alluring manner, which some teachers have attained, 
will engage the attention, keep the soul fixed, and insinuate 

What kind of thoughts, do we \ What may conduce to render lec- 
generally gain in conversation 1 \ turing peculiarly interesting 1 ! Elo- 

Advantages of lectures 1 Lectures \ quence. 
are generally more intelligible than \ What other method is lecturing 
reading, more interesting — maybe \ most like ? 

illustrated by experiments— may ad- I Meaning of compendium!— intelli- 
Hiit of questions. \ giblel — similitude! 



THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 43 

into the mind, th% ideas of things in a more lively and forci- 
ble way, than the mere reading of books in the silence and 
retirement of the closet. 

2. A tutor or instructor, when he paraphrases and ex- 
plains other authors, can mark out the precise point of 
difficulty or controversy, and unfold it. He can shew you, 
which paragraphs are of greatest importance, and which are 
of less moment. He can teach his hearers, what authors, 
or what parts of an author, are best worth reading, on any 
particular subject ; and thus save his disciples much time 
and pains, by shortening the labors of their closet and pri- 
vate studies. He can shew you, what were the doctrines 
of the ancients in a compendium, which perhaps would cost 
much labor. He can inform you, what new doctrines or 
sentiments are rising in the world, before they come to be 
public, as well as acquaint you with his own private thoughts, 
and his own experiments and observations ; which never 
were, and perhaps never will be, published to the world ; 
and yet may be very valuable and useful. 

3. A living instructor can convey to our senses, those 
notions, with which he would furnish our minds, when he 
teaches us natural philosophy, or most parts of mathemati- 
cal learning. He can make the experiments before our 
eyes. He can describe figures and diagrams, point to the 
lines and angles, and make out the demonstration in a more 
intelligible manner, by sensible means, which cannot be 
done so well by mere reading, even though we should have 
the same figures lying in a book before our eyes. A living 
teacher, therefore, is a most necessary help in these studies. 

I might add also, that even where the subject of discourse 
is moral, logical or rhetorical, &c. and which does not 
directly come under the notice of our senses, a tutor may 
explain his ideas by such familiar examples, and plain simili- 
tudes, as seldom find place in books. 

4. When an instructor in his lectures delivers any mat- 
ter of difficulty, or expresses himself in such a manner, as 
seems obscure, so that you do not take his ideas clearly or 
fully, you have opportunity, at least when the lecture is 
finished, or at other proper seasons, to inquire, how such a 
sentence should be understood, or how such a difficulty 
may be explained and removed. 

If there be permission given to free converse with the 
tutor, either in the midst of the lecture, or rather at the end, 
concerning any doubts or difficulties, that occur to the 
hearer, this brings it very near to conversation or discourse. 



44 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 

IV. Conversation is the next method of improvement ; 
and it is attended with the following advantages. 

1. When we converse familiarly with a learned friend, 
we have his own help at hand, to explain to us every word 
and sentiment, that seems obscure in his discourse, and to 
inform us of his whole meaning ; so that we are in much 
less danger of mistaking his sense ; whereas in books, what- 
soever is really obscure, may also abide always obscure, 
since the author is not at hand, that we may inquire his 
sense. 

If we mistake the meaning of our friend in conversation, 
we may be quickly set at right again. But in reading, we 
many times go on in the same mistake ; and are not capa- 
ble of recovering ourselves from it. Thence it comes to 
pass, that we have so many contests, in all ages, about the 
meaning of ancient authors, and especially the sacred 
writers. Happy should we be, could we but converse with 
Moses, Isaiah and Paul, and consult the prophets and 
apostles, when we meet with a difficult text! But that 
glorious conversation is reserved for the ages of future 
blessedness. 

2. When we are discoursing upon any theme with a 
friend, we may propose our doubts and objections against 
his sentiments, and have them solved and answered at once. 
The difficulties, that arise in our minds, may be removed 
by one enlightening word. Whereas in reading, if a diffi- 
culty or question arises in our thoughts, which the author 
has not happened to mention, we must be content without 
a present answer or solution. Books cannot speak. 

3. Not only the doubts, which arise in the mind upon 
any subject of discourse, are easily proposed and solved in 
conversation, but the very difficulties we meet with in books 
and in our private studies, may find a relief by friendly con- 
ference. We may pore upon a knotty point in solitary 
meditation many months, without a solution ; because per- 
haps we have gotten into a wrong tract of thought ; and 
our labor is not only useless and unsuccessful, but it leads 
us perhaps into a train of error, for want of being corrected 
in the first step. But if we note down this difficulty, when 
we read it, we may propose it to an ingenious correspond- 

Advantages of conversation ? It { without public exposure — shows us 

affords opportunity for explanation I human nature — exhilarates the mind 

— for proposing objections — for se- 5 —improves friendship— improves the 

lecting a subject. It peculiarly stimu- \ manners, 

lates the faculties— allows criticism, * 



THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 45 

ent, when we see him ; we may be relieved in a moment 
He beholds the object perhaps in a different view, sets it 
before us in quite another light, and leads us at once into 
evidence and truth, and that, with a delightful surprise. 

4. Conversation calls out into light, what has been lodged 
in the recesses and secret chambers of the soul. By oc- 
casional hints and incidents, it brings old useful notions 
into remembrance. It unfolds and displays the hidden 
treasures of knowledge, with which reading, observation 
and study, had before furnished the mind. By mutual dis- 
course, the soul is awakened, and allured to bring forth its 
hoards of knowledge ; and it learns, how to render them 
most useful to mankind. A man of vast reading, without 
conversation, is like a miser, who lives only to himself." 

5. In free and friendly conversation, our intellectual 
powers are more animated, and our spirits act with a supe- 
rior vigor in quest of unknown truths. There is a sharp- 
ness and sagacity of truth, that attends conversation, be- 
yond what we find, while we are shut up, reading and 
musing in our retirements. Our souls may be serene in 
solitude, but not sparkling, though perhaps we are employ- 
ed in reading the works of the brightest writers. Often has 
it happened in free discourse, that new thoughts are strange- 
ly struck out, and the seeds of truth sparkle and blaze 
through the company, which in calm and silent reading, 
would never have been excited. By conversation, you will 
both give and receive this benefit ; as flints, when put into 
motion and striking against each other, produce living fire 
on both sides, which would never have risen from the same 
hard materials in a state of rest. 

6. In generous conversation, among ingenious and learn- 
ed men, we have a great advantage of proposing our opin- 
ions and of bringing our own sentiments to the test, and of 
learning in a more compendious and a safer way, what the 
world will judge of them, how mankind will receive them, 
what objections may be raised against them, what defects 
there are in our scheme, and how to correct our own mis- 
takes ; which advantages are not so easy to be obtained by 
our own private meditations. For the pleasure we take in 
our own notions, and the passion of self-love, as well as the 
narrowness of our own views, tempt us to pass too favoura- 
ble an opinion on our own schemes ; whereas the variety 

To what, does Watts compare a ? versation 1 — Meaning of miser 1 
man of vast reading, without con- { 



46 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 

of genius in our several associates, will give happy notices, 
how our opinion will stand in the view of mankind. 

7. It is also another considerable advantage of conversa- 
tion, that it furnishes the student witlr the knowledge of 
men and the affairs of life, as reading furnishes him with 
book-learning. A man, who dwells all his days among 
books, may have amassed together a vast heap of notions ; 
but he may be a mere scholar, whichis a contemptible sort 
of character in the world. A hermit," who has been shut up 
in his cell in a college, has contracted a sort of mould and 
rust upon his soul, .and all his airs of behavior have a cer- 
tain aukwardness in them. But these aukward airs are 
worn away by degrees in company. The rust and the 
mould are filed and brushed off by polite conversation. 
The scholar now becomes a citizen or a gentleman, a neigh- 
bor and a friend ; he learns how to dress his sentiments in 
the fairest colors, as well as to set them in the strongest 
light. Thus, he brings out his notions with honor ; he 
makes some use of them in the world ; and improves the 
theory by the practice. 

But before we proceed too far in finishing a bright cha- 
racter by conversation, we should consider, that something 
else is necessary, besides an acquaintance with men and 
books ; and therefore I add, 

V. Mere lecture, reading and conversation, without think- 
ing, are not sufficient to make a man of knowledge and 
wisdom. It is our own thought and reflection, study and 
meditation, which must attend all the other methods of im- 
provement, and perfect them. It carries these advantages 
with it. 

1. Though observation and instruction, reading and con- 
How is a mere scholar generally I timony. 
regarded by the world 1 { Meaning of testimony ? 

What is a college student in dan- \ How shall we determine, what 
ger of contracting 1 _- \ credit to give to testimony i By 

How should students endeavor to \ considering its credibility, 
avoid this 1 By treating each other | Meaning of credit 1- 
more politely. \ Six principal circumstances, that 

Which method of instruction must { render testimony credible *] Pro- 
attend all the rest, in order to .per- 5 bability of the fact; veracity of the 
feet them 1 , / \ witness; his power to judge; his 

Advantages of meditation 1 It \ opportunity to judge ; his freedom 
forms our judgment of things — I from bias, and the consistency of 
makes the sentiments of others our \ his testimony. 
own — improves hints otherwise ac- i Of what, is a person in danger, 
quired. \ who confines himself principally to 

How shall we learn facts, that we \ meditation ? Pelf-conceit, despising 
do not wHness 1 Principally by tes- { others, and falling, into great errors. 



THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 47 

versation may furnish us with many ideas of men and things, 
yet it is our own meditation, and the labor of our own 
thoughts, that must form our judgment of things. Our own 
thoughts should join or disjoin these ideas in a proposition 
for ourselves. It is our own mind, that must judge for our- 
selves, concerning the agreement or disagreement of ideas, 
and form propositions of truth out of them. Reading and 
conversation may acquaint us with many truths, and with 
many arguments to support them. But it is our own study 
and reasoning, that must determine, whether these proposi- 
tions are true, and whether these arguments are just and 
solid. 

It is confessed, there are a thousand things, which our 
eyes have not seen, and which would never come within 
the reach of our observation, because of the distance of 
times and places. These must be known by consulting 
other persons ; and that is done, either in their writings, or 
in their discourses. But after all, let this be a fixed point 
with us, that it is our own reflection and judgment, which 
must determine, how far we should receive that which 
books or men inform us of, and how far they are worthy of 
our assent and credit. 

2. It is meditation, that conveys the notions and senti- 
ments of others to ourselves, so as to make them properly 
our own. It is our own judgment upon them, as well as 
our memory of them, that makes them become our oAvn 
property. It does, as it were, concoct our intellectual food, 
and turns it into a part of ourselves ; just as a man may call 
his limbs and his flesh his own, whether he borrowed the 
materials from the ox or the sheep, from the lark or the 
lobster; whether he derived it from corn or milk, the fruits 
of the trees, or the herbs and roots of the earth. It has all 
now become one substance with himself ; and he wields 
and manages those muscles and limbs, for his own proper 
purposes, which once were the substance of other animals 
or vegetables ; that very substance, which last week was 
grazing in the field, or swimming in the sea, waving in the 
milk-pail, or growing in the garden, has now become part 
of the man. 

3. By meditation, Ave improve the hints, that we have 
acquired by observation, conversation and reading ; we take 
more time in thinking : and by the labor of the mind, we 
penetrate deeper into themes of knowledge, and carry our 
thoughts sometimes much farther on many subjects, than 
we ever met with either in the books of the dead, or dis- 



48 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 

courses of the living 1 . It is our own reasoning, that draws 
out one truth from another, and forms a whole scheme of 
science, from a few hints, which we borrowed elsewhere. 

By a survey of these things, we may justly conclude, 
that he, who spends all his time in hearing lectures, or 
poring upon books, without observation, meditation or con- 
verse, will have but a mere historical knowledge of learn- 
ing, and be able only to tell, what others have known or 
said on the subject He, that lets all his time flow away in 
conversation, without due observation, reading or study, 
will gain but a slight or superficial knowledge ; which will 
be in danger of vanishing with the voice of the speaker ; 
ancl he, that confines himself merely to his closet, and his 
own narrow observation of things, and is taught only by his 
own solitary thoughts, without instruction by lectures, read- 
ing- or free conversation, will be in danger of a narrow 
spirit, a vain conceit of himself, and an unreasonable con- 
tempt of others ; and after all, he will obtain but a very 
limited and imperfect view and knowledge of things, and 
he will seldom learn, how to make that knowledge useful. 

These five methods of improvement should be pursued 
jointly, and go hand in hand, where our circumstances are 
so happy, as to find opportunity and conveniency to enjoy 
them all ; though I must give my opinion, that two of them, 
reading and meditation,, should employ much more of our 
time, than public lectures or conversation. As for observa- 
tion, we may be always acquiring knowledge that 'way, 
whether we are alone or in company. 

But it will be for our further improvement, if we go over 
all these five methods of obtaining knowledge more dis- 
tinctly, and more at large, and see, what special advances 
in useful science we may draw from them all. 

Note II, by the Editor. 

[Here it is earnestly recommended, that the learner re- 
view the preceding pages — that he carefully consider and 
weigh every sentiment and fact, and endeavor to fix it in 
his mind forever. Here is a rich treasure, vastly superior to 

Which of these 5 methods should \ How early in life, should children 
be pursued jointly 1 \ be taught to read? As soon, as 

Meaning of jointly ? \ they can understand what they read. 

From what verb, does jointly ap- \ Should they be encouraged to read 
pear to be derived ? \ much, that they do not understand 1 

To which of these 5 methods, \ Why is it desirable, that children 
should most time be devoted 1 \ should understand what they read 1 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 49 

what he has yet imagined. Let him faithfully examine 
every sentence, endeavor to ascertain its exact meaning, 
to feel its force, and perceive its connection, that it may be- 
come, as it were, a part of his very soul. It is often much 
easier to gain, than to keep, especially ideas. He may 
have faithfully learnt and recited every answer. But he is 
in danger of soon losing the greater part. One of the best 
methods of preventing this, is a regular and thorough re- 
view. It may be in one lesson or more, according to the 
judgment of the teacher. One hour thus spent may con- 
duce more to fix the answers in the memory, than three in 
common study. Nor is this all. It will peculiarly tend to 
improve the faculty, so that the pupil will more easily learn, 
and better retain his future lessons. 

But so imperfect is the human memory, that we are by 
no means to suppose, that merely once learning and re- 
viewing will permanently fix in the mind so many particu- 
lars. Other methods must be pursued. Among the best, 
no doubt, is the method by miscellaneous questions. This 
goes over the same ground, as the regular lessons ; but the 
arrangement is altogether miscellaneous, and most of the 
questions different. A great part of them are reversed 
questions, in which the questions and answers substantially 
change places. The following may serve as a specimen. 
How long was Watts in composing his treatise on the Mind ? 
What work was Watts 20 years in composing ? 

Those, who have well understood and committed the 
preceding lessons, will find it an easy task to learn the mis- 
cellaneous questions. But this easy task, in proportion to 
the time it costs, will probably be found the most useful of 
all methods for increasing the intellectual stores. 

The miscellaneous arrangement is of inestimable value. 
Nothing else perhaps so completely subjects our knowl- 
edge to our control and management, whenever we have 
occasion to use it.] 

Miscellaneous Questions, No. i. 

What work of Watts has been \ mind 1 
the most distinguished 1 i Which chapter contains 16 gen- 

Into what, may we be plunged by \ eral rules for gaining knowledge and 
our mistakes in judgment 1 \ improvement 1 

Of what, does the first chapter \ From what do we take irhpres- 
consist 1 \ sions of objects by observation ? 

What is emulation 1 I What are some of the chief ad- 

If we judge of things by the first 1 vantages of conversation 1 
glimpse, with what will it fill the \ 

5 



50 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



Advantage of knowing something 
of an author 1 

Whom do we dishonor by acting 
without reason 1 

When are we accountable to God 
for mistakes 1 

Whose misconduct should we 
chiefly consider, in order to feel the 
importance of good judgment 1 

When is emulation right 1 - 

How often should we inquire, 
what new ideas we have gained 1 

What is logic 1 

What works should we read most 
eagerly, to correct ourjudgment 1 

When is emulation wrong 1 

Meaning of dogmatic 7 

Benefit of dreams 1 

Which of the five methods most 
improves the manners 1 

Occasion of imperfect style and 
repetitions in this book 1 

What is a judgment without evi- 
dence ? 

What besides genius, is necessary 
to make a person truly wise 1 

Against what, does dogmatism 
stop the ears 1 

When did the Reformation begin 1 

How many rules does the first 
chapter contain, for gaining knowl- 
edge and mental improvement ? 

How many methods of gaining in- 
struction, does Watts mention ? 

In what manner, was this work 
composed 1 

Why do witty men sometimes 
.. pretend to despise argument 1 

Why is Positivo unwilling to con- 
fess his errors 1 

What distinguished the year 15171 

Some of the chief advantages of 
reading 1 

Some special advantages of con- 
versation 1 

Which of the 5 methods gives us 
ideas, the most clear and lively 1 

Which of the 5 methods should 
attend all the rest 1 

For whom is this work more par- 
ticularly designed 1 

What name is given to that state 
of mind, which tends to make a 
person judge without evidence? 

What should we exercise upon all 
we read ? 

What sometimes renders the man- 
ners of Audens insupportable ? 

With what, is Jocander ready to 
answer every thing he hears 1 



i Meaning of prejudice? 

i Most interesting of the 5 meth- 

: odsl 

: By which of these, do we form 

i our judgment of things? 

i What prevented Watts's improv- 

: ing this work, as he intended 1 

| Who by his infallible assurance, 

: sometimes rendered his manners in- 

: supportable 1 

Who is ready to turn every thought 
into a joke 1 

What are the 5 principal methods 
of instruction ? 
I Which of the 5 methods are most 
convenient for experiments 1 

By which of the 5 methods, do 
we gain our fundamental ideas? 

Which of the 5 methods makes 
the sentiments of others our own ? 

What is the art of investigating 
and communicating truth '? 

When are prejudices most easily 
imbibed ? 

To what, should the hope of new 
discoveries animate us 1 

Which of the 5 methods is most 
convenient for questions 1 
By which, do we draw inferences ? 
Why are we accountable for some 
mistakes 1 

Of what, does logic teach us the 
right use ? 

At what period of life, are preju- 
dices strongest 1 

What is said of the fool in Prov. 
14: 161 

Who exceedingly impairs his un- 
derstanding, by his laughing humor? 
By which of the 5 methods, do 
we join our ideas into propositions 1 
What is false induction ? 
Evil of attempting to learn too 
many things 1 

Meaning of premises'? 
How does bad feeling produce pre- 
judice 1 

With whose ignorance, are we 
most deeply concerned 1 
Meaning of Millennium 1 
What character is in peculiar dan- 
ger of becoming a bloody persecu- 
tor ? 

What influence upon the mind, 
has vicious indulgence 1 
Meaning of consciousness ? 
When we employ causes to wit- 
ness effects, what is it called 1 

What opportunity had Watts en- 
joyed, for observation ? 



RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 



51 



Why is no man obliged to learn 
every thing 1 

What will be the state of the 
world during the Millennium 1 

What should we be willing to re- 
tract ? 

What does God give to those, 
who are good in his sight? 

Which of the 5 methods affords 
us the best opportunity for convers- 
ing with the wisest and best of men ? 
If we attempt to learn too many 
things, how will it be likely to injure 
the faculties ? 

In what period of the world, will 
all men be holy and happy ? 

What should we be willing to 
confess 1 

To whom, does God give wisdom 
and knowledge and joy? 

Which of the 5 methods affords 
us the best opportunity of choosing 
companions ? 
When was Watts born <? 
Who ought - to improve their 
miners? 

Why does no one regard the opin- 
ion of Subito? 

What is it to be good in the sight 
of God? 

Scripture sense of conversation? 
Profession of Watts ? 
What will the mind be, if unim- 
proved 'J 

To what interests is prejudice in- 
jurious ? 

What great reformation did Mar- 
tin Luther begin 1 

Tendency of acting contrary to 
judgment and conscience 1 

To what objects, are we limited 
in observation 1 

Which of the 5 methods may be 
most aided by eloquence 1 



Where was Watts born 1 
To which of the 5 methods should 
most time be devoted 1 
Where was Watts settled ? 
Upon what subjects, is it most 
important, that we reason correctly 1 
Who began the great reformation 
from Popery 1 

Which of the 5 methods is pecu- 
liarly important to the rest ? 

Which is most favorable for ex- 
planation ? 
- Character of Watts's piety 1 
What time has every one to at- 
tend to religion ? 

What have many turned into a 
composition of hard words, trifles 
and subtilties 1 

Whose ignorance should we most 
deeply deplore 1 
What is prayer without study ? 
What does every truth become, 
when expressed in words ? 

By which of the 5 methods, do we 
gain ideas at first hand? — Which 
i>.ost exhilarates the mind ? 
What is a proposition 1 
Which of the 5 methods is most 
limited to its objects 1 

Why should children understand 
what they read 1 
\ - General state of Watts's health 1 
\ What is study without prayer ? 
\ What mental skill is very desira- 
ble for all ? 
\ Into what, have many turned 
| logic 1 

\ Why should we most deeply de- 
l plore our own ignorance ? 
\ Which of the 5 methods has its 
\ peculiar excellences and defects ? 
J Some of the chief advantages of 
\ meditation'? 



CHAPTER III. 

RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 

Though observation in the strict sense of the word, and 
as it is distinguished from meditation and study, is the first 
means of our improvement, and in its strictest sense, does 
not include in it any reasoning's of the mind upon the things 
which we observe, or inferences drawn from them ; yet the 
motions of the mind are so exceedingly swift, that it is hardly 



52 RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 

possible for a thinking- man to gain experience or observa- 
tion, without making- some secret and short reflections upon 
them ; and therefore, in giving a few directions concerning 
this method of improvement, I shall not so narrowly confine 
myself to the first mere impressions of objects on the mind, 
by observation ; but include also some hints, which relate 
to the first, most easy, and obvious reflections or reason- 
ings,, which arise from them. 

I. Let the enlargement of your knowledge be one con- 
stant view and design in life ; since there is no time or 
place, no transactions, occurrences or engagements in life, 
which exclude us from this method of improving the mind. 
When we are alone, even in darkness and silence, we may 
converse with our own hearts, observe the working of our 
own spirits, and reflect upon the inward motions of our own 
passions in some of the latest occurrences in life ; we may 
acquaint ourselves with the powers and properties, the 
tendencies and inclinations both of body and spirit, and 
gain a more intimate knowledge of ourselves. When we 
are in company, we may discover something more of hu- 
man nature, of human passions and follies, and of human 
affairs, vices and virtues, by conversing with mankind, and 
observing their conduct. Nor is there any thing more valua- 
ble, than the knowledge of ourselves and the knowledge of 
men, except it be the knowledge of God who made us, and 
our relation to him as our governor. 

When we are in the house or the city, wherever we turn 
our eyes, we see the works of men. When we are abroad 
in the country, we behold more of the works of God, The 
skies and the ground above and beneath us, and the animal 
and vegetable world around about us, may entertain our 
observation with ten thousand varieties. 

Endeavor, therefore, to derive some instruction or im- 
provement of mind from every thing which you see or hear, 

Subject of the third chapter 1 I the faculties. 

Of what other exercise, is oh- { With what, can we converse, 

eervation considered as including a \ alone, in darkness ? 

small degree ? j What nature have we peculiar op- 

When should we keep in view the \ portunities to learn in company ? 

enlargement of our knowledge? \ With what creatures, is it most 

When should we be engaged for \ important for us to be acquainted 1 

the improvement of our mental fac- \ What knowledge is not less im- 

ulties ? Constantly. ? portant, than that of mankind 1 

How can we continually pursue \ Whose works may we principally 

both these objects 1 Probably to ac- 5 see in the city 1— in the country ? 

quire useful knowledge, in the best 5 From what, should we endeavor 

manner, is the best way to improve \ to derive instruction 1 



RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 53 

ffom every thing, which occurs in human life, from every 
thing within you or without you. 

Fetch down some knowledge from the clouds, the stars, 
the sun, the moon, and the revolution of all the planets. 
Dig and draw up some valuable meditations from the depths 
of the earth; and search them through the vast oceans of 
water. Extract some intellectual improvements from the 
minerals and metals, from the wonders of nature among the 
vegetables, the herbs, trees and flowers. Learn some les- 
sons from the birds, and the beasts and the meanest insect. 
Read the wisdom of God, and his admirable contrivance in 
them all. Read his almighty power, his rich and various 
goodness, in all the works of his hands. 

From the day and the night, the hours and the flying 
• minutes, learn a wise improvement of time ; and be watch- 
ful to seize every opportunity to increase in knowledge. 

From the vicissitudes and revolutions of nations and fami- 
lies, and from the various occurrences of the world, learn 
the instability of mortal affairs, the uncertainty of life, the 
certainty of death. From a coffin and a funeral, learn to 
meditate upon your own departure. 

From the vices and follies of others, observe what is 
hateful in them. Consider how such a practice looks in 
another person ; and remember, that it looks as ill or worse 
in yourself. From the virtues of others, learn something 
worthy of your imitation. 

From the deformity, the distress or calamity of others, 
derive lessons of thankfulness to God, and hymns of grate- 
ful praise to your Creator, Governor and Benefactor, who 
has formed you in a better mould, and guarded you from 
those evils. Learn also the sacred lesson of contentment 
in your own estate, and compassion to your neighbor under 
his miseries. 

From your natural powers, sensations, judgment, memory, 
hands, feet, &c. make this inference, that they were' not 
given you for nothing, but for some useful employment, to 
the honor of your Maker, and for the good of your fellow- 
creatures, as well as for your own best interests and final 
happiness. 

From what, should we fetch down I and follies of others 1— from the vir- 
knowledge? \ tues of others 1 — from the calami- 

What may we learn from the vi- I ties of others ? 
cissitudes and revolutions of nations \ For what, were our natural pow- 
and families 1 | ers and members given us 1 

What may we learn from the vices \ 

5* 



54 



RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 



From the sorrows, the pains, the sicknesses and suffer- 
ings, that attend you, learn the evil of sin, and the imper- 
fection of your present state. From your own sins and 
follies, learn the patience of God toward you, and the prac- 
tice of humility toward God and man. 

Thus, from every appearance in nature, from every oc- 
currence of life, you may derive natural, moral and reli- 
gious observations, to entertain your minds, as well as rules 
of conduct in the affairs relating to this life, and that which 
is to come. 

II. In order to furnish the mind with a rich variety of 
ideas, the laudable curiosity of young people should be in- 
dulged and gratified, rather than discouraged. It is a very 
hopeful sign in young persons, to see them curious in ob- 
serving, and inquisitive in searching into the greatest part 
of things that occur ; nor should such an inquiring temper 
be frowned into silence, nor be rigorously restrained, but 
should rather be satisfied by proper answers. 

For this reason also, where time and fortune allow it, 
young people should be led into company at proper seasons, 
should be carried abroad, to see the fields, the woods, the 



From what, may we learn the 
evils of sin ? — the patience of God 1 

In whom, is curiosity a hopeful 
sign ? 

Meaning of curiosity ? 

How should it be treated ? 

What opportunities, would Watts 
allow young persons for observing 
various objects 1 

First of 3 cautions relating to such 
observers 1 Their minds should not 
be distracted and overwhelmed, by 
too many objects. 

Second 1 ] They should not be 
hurried from object to object. 

Third 1 Their attention should 
be directed to the most important. 

Special direction 1 Their minds 
should be improved and enriched, 
by various questions relating to the 
objects, both at the time of observ- 
ing them, and afterwards. 

What other means should be used 
for their instruction 1 Explanations, 
anecdotes and reflections. 
Meaning of anecdote ? 
To what topics, should these in- 
structions related To the proper- 
ties, uses and history of the objects. 
Why should the observer be ques- 
tioned at first ? To bring his atten- 



tion to the subject, and to learn him 
to think. 

Why afterward 1 To see, what 
he remembers, to fix the instructions 
in his mind, and to see, what far- 
ther reflections he has had. 

What establishment might be ex- 
ceedingly useful for such observers 1 
A vast museum. 

Meaning of museum ? 

How often should they visit it ? 
Two or three times a week, for 
years, unless debarred for miscon- 
duct. 

How should they be allowed to 
use the articles 1 To handle them, 
and examine them freely, at least, 
when there is no danger of injury. 

What shall b« done for a substi- 
tute 1 Collect and show them as 
many useful articles, as possible, 
and introduce them into museums, 
as far as it may be safe and con- 
venient. 

For what purpose, should muse- 
ums be visited ? Chiefly for instruc- 
tion. 

What seems exceedingly desirable 
for one, who visits a museum 1 A 
book, explaining every article. 



RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 55 

rivers, the buildings, towns and cities, distant from their 
own dwelling. They should be entertained with the sight 
of strange birds, beasts, fishes, insects, vegetables, and pro- 
ductions both of nature and art of every kind, whether they 
are the products of their own or foreign nations. And in 
due time, where Providence gives opportunity, they may 
travel under a wise inspector or tutor, to different parts of 
the world, for the same end, that they may bring home 
treasures of useful knowledge. 

III. Among all these observations, write down what is 
most remarkable and uncommon. Reserve these remarks 
in store for proper occasions, and at proper seasons, take a 
review of them. Such a practice will give you a habit of 
useful thinking. This will secure the exercises of your 
mind from running to waste ; and by this means, even your 
looser moments will turn to happy account, both here and 
hereafter. And whatever useful observations have been 
made, let them be at least some part of the subject of your 
conversation -among your friends, at the next meeting. 

Let the circumstances or situations of life, be what or 
where they will, a man should never neglect the improve- 
ment, which may be derived from observation. Let him 
travel into the East or West Indies, and fulfil the duties of 
the military or mercantile life there ; let him rove through 
the earth or the seas, for his own humor as a traveller, or 
pursue his diversion in what part of the world he pleases, as 
a gentleman ; let prosperous or adverse fortune call him to 
the most distant parts of the globe ; still let him carry on 
his knowledge and the improvement of his mind by wise 
observations. In due time, by this means, he may render 
himself in some way useful to mankind. 

Theobaldino, in his younger years, visited the forests of 
Norway, on the account of trade and timber ; and besides 
his proper observations of the growth of trees on those 
northern mountains, he learnt, there was a sort of people 
called Finnes in those confines, which border upon Swe- 
den, whose habitation was in the woods ; and he lived after- 
wards to give a good account of them, and of some of their 
customs, to the Royal Society for the Improvement of Nat- 

What observations should we \ of body or mind, which enables us 

write down 1 \ to do something more easily or per- 

What use should we make of i fectly, in consequence of having re- 

these 1 1 peatedly done' it before. 

What most important habit, will | What do we do, from habit 1 AI- 

Buch a practice conduce to form 1 \ most every thing. 

Meaning of habit? A certain state \ 



56 RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 

ural Knowledge. Puteoli was taken captive into Turkey 
in his youth, and travelled with his master in their holy pil- 
grimage to Mecca, whereby he became more intelligent in 
the forms, ceremonies, and fooleries of the Mahometan wor- 
ship, than perhaps ever any Briton was before ; and by his 
manuscripts, we are more acquainted in this last century 
with the Turkish sacreds, than any one had ever informed 
us. 

IV. Let us keep our minds as free as possible, from pas- 
sions and prejudices ; for these will give a wrong turn to 
our observations, both on persons and things. The eyes of 
a man in the jaundice make yellow observations on every 
thing ; and the soul, tinctured with any passion or preju- 
dice diffuses a false color over the real appearances of 
things, and disguises many of the common occurrences of 
life. It never beholds things in a true light, nor suffers 
them to appear, as they are. Whensoever, therefore, you 
would make proper observations, let self with all its influ- 
ences stand aside, as far as possible ; abstract your own in- 
terest and your own concern from them, and bid all friend- 
ships and enmities stand aloof, and keep out of the way, in 
the observations that you make relating to persons and 
things. 

If this rule were well o-beyed, we should be much better 
guarded against those common instances of misconduct in 
the observations of men, namely, the false judgments of 
pride and envy. How ready is envy to mingle with the 
notices, which we take of other persons ! How often are 
mankind prone to put an ill sense upon the actions of their 
neighbors, to take a survey of them in an evil position, and 
in an unhappy light ! And by this means, we form a worse 
opinion of pur neighbors, than they deserve ; while at the 
same time, pride and self-flattery tempt us to make unjust 
observations on ourselves, in our own favor.) In all the fa- 
vorable judgments we pass concerning ourselves, we should 
allow a little abatement on this account. 

From what two evils, should we I — Why ? 
keep our minds free, in making ob- \ Why should we make some abate- 
servationsl \ ment in our good opinion of our- 

What eyes make yellow observa- \ selves ? 
tions upon every thing? I How can we judge ourselves less 

What often conduces to make us \ excellent, than we seem to be 1 
form a worse opinion of our neigh- \ Just as we can judge the sun and 
bor, than he deserves 1 \ moon, much larger, than they seem 

Are we most likely to think too 5 to be. 
highly, or too meanly of ourselves 1 \ 



RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 57 

V. In making your observations on persons, take care of 
indulging thatfbusy curiosity,) which is ever inquiring into 
private and domestic affairs, with an endless desire of learn- 
ing' the secret history of families. It is but seldom, that 
such a prying curiosity attains any valuable ends. It often 
begets suspicions, jealousies and disturbances in house- 
holds, and is a frequent temptation to persons, to defame 
their neighbors. Some persons cannot help telling what 
they know. (A busy body is most liable to become a tattler 
upon every occasion. 

VI. Let your observation even of persons and their con- 
duct, be chiefly designed in order to lead you to a better 
acquaintance with things, particularly with human nature ; 
and to inform you, what to imitate, and what to avoid, rather 
than to Curnish out matter for the evil passions of the mind, 
or the impertinencies of discourse, and reproaches of the 
tongue. 

v II. Though it may be proper sometimes to make your 
observations concerning persons, as well as things, the sub- 
ject of your discourse in learned or useful conversation, yet 
what remarks you make on particular persons, especially to 
their disadvantage, should, for the most part, lie hid in your 
own breast, till some just and apparent occasions, some 
necessary call of providence lead you to speak them. 

If the character or conduct, which you observe, be greatly 
culpable, it should so much the less be published. You 
may treasure up such remarks of the follies, indecencies or 
vices of your neighbors, as may be a constant guard against 
your practice of the same, without exposing his reputation 
on that account. It is a good old rule, that our conversa- 
tion should rather be laid out on things, than on persons ; 
and this rule should generally be observed, unless names 
be concealed, wheresoever the faults or follies of mankind 
are our present theme. 

Our late archbishop Tillotson has written a small but ex- 
cellent discourse on evil-speaking, wherein he admirably 

Against what curiosity, should we I of others 1 

particularly guard, in observing per- l What of the maxim, that we 

sons? \ should never speak of others, but to 

Meaning of busy curiosity? \ their advantage 1 It is contrary to 

What is a busy-body likely to be- \ reason and Scripture, and calculated 

come ? ' | to defeat itself. 

Meaning of tattZer? \ How to defeat itself ? In such a 

To what object, should our obser- \ case, to say nothing of a person, 

vation of persons be chiefly directed? I who is mentioned, is often the same, 
What is the only thing, that, should \ as to declare} that we can say no 

ever lead us to speak unfavorably \ good of him. 



58 RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 

explains, limits and applies that general apostolic precept, 
" Speak £vil of no man." Tit. S : %. 

VIII. |Be not too hasty to erect general theories from a 
few particular observations, appearances or experiments. 
This is what the logicians call a false induction.) When 
general observations are drawn from so many particulars, 
as to become certain and indubitable, these are jewels of 
knowledge, comprehending great treasure in a little room; 
but, they are, therefore, to be made with the greater care 
and caution, lest errors become large and diffusive if we 
should mistake in these general notions. 

A hasty determination of some universal principles, with- 
out a due survey of all the particular cases, which may be 
included in them, is the way to lay a trap for our own un- 
derstandings in their pursuit of any subject ; and we shall 
often be taken captives into mistake and falsehood. Niveo 
in his youth, observed that onf three Christmas-days to- 
gether, there fell a good quantity of snow ;\ and now he has 
written it down in his almanack, as part of his wise remarks 
on the weather, that it will always snow at Christmas. 
Euron, a young lad, took notice ten times, that there was a 
sharp frost, when the wind was in the north-east ; and there- 
fore, in the middle of last July, he almost expected it would 
freeze, because the weather-cocks showed him a north-east 
wind ; and he was still more disappointed, when he found 
it a very sultry season. It is the same hasty judgment, that 
has thrown scandal on a whole nation, for the sake of some 
culpable characters, belonging to several particular natives 
of that country ; whereas all Frenchmen are not gay and 
airy ; all the Italians are not jealous and revengeful ; nor 
all the English over-run with the spleen. 

From what, should we not hastily i mas 'J 
erect general theories 1 j On whose account, is scandal 

What is this called 1 \ sometimes thrown upon a whole 

What led Niveo to conclude, that j nation *? 
it would always snow on Christ- { 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 59 



CHAPTER IV. 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 



I. The world is full of books ; but there are multitudes, 
which are so ill written, that they were never worthy any 
man's reading ; and there are thousands more, which may 
be good in their kind, but are worth nothing, when the month 
or year, or occasion is past, for which they were writtten. 
Others may be valuable in themselves, for some special 
purpose, or in some peculiar science, but are not fit to be 
perused by any, but those who are engaged in that particular 
science or business. To what use is it for a divine or phy- 
sician or a tradesman, to read over the huge volumes of 
reports of judged cases in the law ? or for a lawyer to learn 
Hebrew, and read the Rabbins ? It is of vast advantage 
for improvement of knowledge and saving time, for a young 
man to have the most proper books for his reading recom- 
mended by a judicious friend. 

II. Books of importance of any kind, and especially com- 
plete treatises on any subject, should be first read, in a 
more general and cursory manner, to learn a little, Avhat 
the treatise promises, and what you may expect from the 
writer's manner and skill. And for this end, I would ad- 
vise always, that the preface be read, and a survey taken 
of the table of contents, if there be one, before this first sur- 
vey of the book. By this means, you will not only be bet- 

What three classes of books does i books often very injurious ? By be- 

Watts mention, as deserving little ing given ignorantly, inconsiderately 

or no attention ? i or wickedly. 

How may a young person be as- \ Should we read a book, merely to 

sisted in ascertaining, what books 5 gratify its recommender ? — to say 

he should read 1 ] we have read it ?— to talk about it 1 

What qualifications should the Grand objects, for which we 

recommender possess 1 Good judg- \ should read 1 Knowledge and men- 

ment, acquaintance with the book, \ tal improvement, 

and circumstances of the reader. In what manner, would Watts 

Why should he consider the cir- j have books first read ?— Why 1 

c-imstances of the reader 1 A book What does he say of reading the 

may be pernicious to some, that is f preface, and table of contents ? 

useful to others. I How should the second reading be 

Why are recommendations of \ performed? 



\ 

60 OF READING AND BOOKS. 

ter fitted to give the book the first reading, but you will be 
much assisted in your second perusal; which should be 
done with greater attention and deliberation ; and you will 
learn with more ease and readiness, what the author pre- 
tends to teach. In your reading, mark what is new or un- 
known to you before ; and review those chapters, pages or 
paragraphs. Unless a reader has an uncommon and most 
retentive memory, I may venture to affirm, that there is 
scarcely any book or chapter, worth reading once, that is 
not worthy of a second perusal. At least, take a careful 
review of all the lines or paragraphs, which you marked, 
and make a collection of the sections, which you thought 
truly valuable. 

There is another reason also, why I would choose to take 
a superficial and cursory survey of a book, before I sit down 
to read it, and dwell upon it with studious attention ; and 
that is, there may be several difficulties in it which we can- 
not easily understand and conquer at the first reading, for 
want of a fuller comprehension of the author's whole scheme. 
And therefore, in such treatises, we should not stay, till we 
master every difficulty at the first perusal ; for perhaps, 
many of these will appear to be solved, when we have pro- 
ceeded farther, or will vanish upon a second reading. 

What we cannot reach and penetrate at first, may be 
noted down as matter for after consideration and inquiry, if 
the pages, that follow, do not happen to strike a complete 
light on those, which went before. 

III. If three or four persons agree to read the same book, 
and each brings his own remarks upon it, at some set hours 
appointed for conversation, and they communicate mutually 
their sentiments on the subject, and debate about it in a 
friendly manner, this practice will render the reading of 
any author more abundantly beneficial to every one of them. 

Should we stop to conquer every i ing the same book 1 
difficulty, at the first reading 1 — \ Which of the 5 methods does this 
Why 1 | imply? as much as reading 1 

How shall we remember the diffi- \ What objection is there, to adopt- 
culty? I ing this social method in all cases 1 

To what book, does this direction \ The reading must be very slow, 
more especially apply ? The Bible. \ Chief advantage of this method 1 

What if we should never pass 5 To excite greater attention to the 
over a passage of scripture, without i book, fix its contents in the memory, 
perfectly understanding it? We \ instruct each othsr by remarks, pro- 
should probably never get through \ duce a habit of remarking upon what 
the first chapter of Genesis. ? is read, and improve in conversa" 

What method does he recommend L tion. 
for 3 or 4 persons to practise, in read- \ 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 61 

IV. If several persons, engaged in the same study, take 
into their hands distinct treatises on one subject, and ap- 
point a season of communication once a week, they may 
inform each other in a brief manner concerning the sense, 
sentiments and method of those several authors, and there- 
by promote each other's improvement, either by recommend- 
ing -the perusal of the same book to their companions, or 
perhaps by satisfying their inquiries concerning it by con- 
versation, without every one's perusing it. 

V. Remember that your business in reading or in con- 
versation, especially on subjects of natural, moral or divine 
science, is not merely to know the opinion of the author or 
speaker ; for this is but the mere knowledge of history ; but 
your chief business is to consider, whether their opinions 
are right or not, and to improve your own solid knowledge 
of that subject, by meditation on the themes of their writ- 
ing or discourse. I Deal freely with every author you read 3 
and yield up your assent onlyfto evidence, and just reason- 
ing on the subject^ 

Here I would be understood to speak only of human au- 
thors, and not of the sacred and inspired writings. In these, 
our business indeed is only to find out the sense ; and our 
assent then is bound to follow, when we are before satisfied, 

Another method of reading for I not lie. 
several, who are pursuing the same \ Why cannot God lie 1 because 
study! \ he is unchangeably good. 

Advantages 1 Nearly the same as \ Why should we follow our own 
of the other, with more abundant \ judgment, rather than that of others, 
improvement. \ as far as we are capable of judging 1 

Disadvantage of the second 1 \ , What if we should always follow 
Slower than the first. ; the judgment of others 1 Our own 

What object is much more impor- \ judgment would be in vain, and we 
tant in reading, than merely to know \ should wickedly bury a most noble 
the opinion of the author"] \ and precious talent. 

With what authors, should we \ When may we follow the judg- 
deal freely? \ ment of others 1 When it is mani- 

W T hat is implied in dealing freely \ fest, that they can judge for us, bet- 
with an author 1 \ ter than we can judge for ourselves. 

To what alone, should we yield 5 What judgment, must we still ex- 
our assent, when we read human \ ercise in such a case ? We must 
authors ? \ determine, whether they can judge 

Whose reason should guide us in \ for us, and also, how far to follow 
seeking truth 1 \ their judgment. 

What should be our first and | On what subjects, are we more 
grand object, in reading the scrip- ? especially bound to judge for our- 
tures 1 \ selves ? On the most important sub- 

More important object 1 Toprac- \ jects of religion and conscience: 
Use them. f Why 1 Because we must all give 

Why should we yield our assent \ account for ourselves at the day of 
to the declarations of God 1 Be- \ judgment. 



cause he certainly knows, and can- 
6 



62 OF READING AND BOOKS. 

that the writing is divine. Yet I might add also, that even 
this is just reasoning, and this is sufficient evidence to de- 
mand our assent. 

But in the compositions of men, remember, you are a 
man as well as they ; and it is not their reason, but your 
own, that is given to guide you, when you arrive at years 
of discretion. 

Note III, by the Editor. 

[Manner of treating human Authors. — According to the 
author's own direction, we should deal freely and faithfully 
with this treatise of his. Thus he dealt with others, how- 
ever much revered and admired. Such men as Watts, 
would be the last to complain of such treatment. It is the 
very thing, they most earnestly desire. They are sensible 
of their imperfections. They know, that they have errors. 
They do not dare presume, that in this respect, their works 
are faultless. And they sometimes tremble, lest they should 
lead others into error, or confirm them in falsehood. There 
is no reason to think, that Watts would ever have published 
this or any other work, had he expected his instructions to 
be implicitly received. And yet we are in peculiar danger 
of receiving the instructions of this book, without due ex- 
amination. Our love and admiration of his greatness, piety, 
learning, candor, caution and prayerfulness, and especially 
our admiration of this work, is in danger of bribing our 
judgment, and leading us to feel, as though such a work 
can contain nothing erroneous. We ought, therefore, to 
be continually on our guard. Nay, we should be doubly 
guarded ; for an error imbibed from Watts, as it may have 
more influence, than the same error imbibed from a man 
less revered and loved, so it may prove more injurious. 
This is one reason, that I wished to publish this little ap- 
pendage to a work, that I so highly estimate, and to which, 
I feel so much indebted. I would,' if possible, lead the pupil 
most devoutly to inquire, whether there are not some dark 
spots in this sun of our literary hemisphere, though unob- 
served by' the common eye. And yet it is possible, that 

How should we deal with this I received implicitly 1 
treatise of Watts. \ Why should we be doubly on our 

Why are we in peculiar danger of I guard against embracing the errors 
embracing any errors, it may con- \ of Watts 1 
tain 1 \ Reason mentioned, for publishing 

What if Watts had supposed, that I the Questions and Supplement 1 
hia instructions were likely to be \ 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 63 

my queries and remarks, may induce him to doubt or dis- 
card some things, that are true, and to receive some, that 
are false. I must, therefore, most earnestly advise you, as 
a dear pupil, to deal with me, as you are here directed to 
deal with Watts and others. We should be cautious, how- 
ever, lest excess of caution should lead us astray. We 
should take heed, that our jealous fearing, trembling watch 
for the author's errors, does not lead us to forget the dan- 
ger of committing them ourselves — that our watch for ene- 
mies abroad, does not lead us to hush all suspicion of the 
more dangerous traitors in the camp, of our own minds. 
Some persons, indeed, are so extremely fearful of errors 
from abroad, that they will scarcely give attention to what 
is written or spoken by others. We may expect to find the 
minds of such persons, an unweeded garden, overgrown 
with the briers and thorns, the spontaneous production of 
the uncultivated and noxious soil. Verily the way of truth 
is a strait and narrow way.] 

VI. Let this, therefore, be your practice, especially after 
you have gone through one course of any science in your 
academical studies. If a writer on that subject maintains 
the same sentiments, as you do, yet if he does not explain his 
ideas, or prove his positions well, mark the faults or defects, 
and endeavor to do it better, either in the margin of your 
book, or rather in some papers of your own, or at least, let 
it be done in your private meditations. As for instance ; 

Where the author is obscure, enlighten him ; where he 
is imperfect, supply his deficiencies ; where he is too brief 
and concise, amplify a little, and set his notions in a fairer 

Advice of the author of these 1 \ larly noticeable? With an angle, 
Caution added 1 j formed by two straight lines, meet- 

What is then said, of the way of \ ing and pointing to the important 
truth 1 1 thing. 

What if an author, would have us 1 Advantages of marking, as we 
receive his opinions upon human \ read 1 We shall be likely to read 
authority 1 There is reason to sus- \ with much more attention and dis- 
pect, that he cannot support them { crimination, can easily review the 
by argument and that most probably I most important passages, and con- 
they are false. \ suit our associates concerning them. 

What does Watts advise us to do, \ What great and almost universal 
when we discover faults in books 1 j fault, will it tend to correct ? Read- 
How should we mark faults, when \ ing too rapidly, 
the book is our own 1 With a cross in \ What class of readers are more 
the margin.—things doubtiul ? With j especially liable to this fault? 
an interrogation.— things excellent? { How much more useful, is the 
With a marginal line. — things very * method of reading here recommend- 
excellent 1 With two or more mar- l ed, than the common, careless man- 
ginal lines.— other things, particu- \ ner'J 



64 OF READING AND BOOKS. 

view ; where he is redundant, mark those paragraphs to be 
retrenched; when he trifles, and grows impertinent, aban- 
don those passages or pages ; where he argues, observe, 
whether his reasons be conclusive ; if the conclusion be 
true, and yet the argument weak, endeavor to confirm it by- 
better proofs ; where he derives or infers any propositions 
darkly or doubtfully, make the justice of the inferences ap- 
pear, and add further inferences or corollaries, if such occur 
to your mind ; where you suppose he is in a mistake, pro- 
pose your objections and correct his sentiments ; what he 
writes so well, as to approve itself to your judgment both as 
just and useful, treasure it up in your memory, and count it 
a part of your intellectual gains. 

Note, Many of the same directions, which I have now 
given, may be practised with regard to conversation, as 
well as reading, in order to render it useful in the most 
extensive and lasting manner. 

VII. Other things also of the like nature may be useful- 
ly practised with regard to the authors, which you read. 
If the method of a book be irregular, reduce it into form by 
a little analysis of your own, or by hints in the margin ; if 
those things are heaped together, which should be sep- 
arated, you may wisely distinguish and divide them. If 
several things relating to the same subject, are scattered up 
and down separately through the treatise, you may bring 
them all to one view by references ; or if the matter of a 
book be really valuable and deserving, you may throw it 
into a better method, reduce it to a more logical scheme, or 
abridge it into a lesser form. All these practices will have 
a tendency both to advance your skill in logic and method, 
to improve your judgment in general, and to give you a 
fuller survey of that subject in particular. When you have 
finished the treatise, with all your observations upon it, 
recollect and determine, what real improvements you have 
made by reading that author. 

VIII. If a book has no index nor good table of contents, 
it is very useful to make one, as you are reading it ; not 
with such exactness, as to include the sense of every page 

i What parts of a book should we i For those, who are considerably ad- 
endeavor to remember 1 { vanced in knowledge. 

Meaning of brief '?— redundant!— \ What if a book has no index, or 
retrench ?— corollary ? \ good table of contents 1 

What advantages may result, from i Use of such an exercise ? To im- 
improving the method and composi- \ prove the mind, and to fix the most 
tion of a book ? \ important thoughts in the memory 1 

, Fox whom, is this exercise proper? { 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 65 

and paragraph, which should be done, if you designed to 
print it ; but it is sufficient in your index, to take notice only 
of those parts of the book, which are new to you, or which 
you think well written, and well worthy of your remem- 
brance or review. 

Shall I be so free as to assure my younger friends, from 
my own experience, that these methods of reading will cost 
some pains in the first years of your study, and especially 
in the first authors, which you peruse in any science, or on 
any particular subject ; but the profit will richly compen- 
sate the pains. And in the following years of life, after 
you have read a few valuable books on any special subject, 
in this manner, it will be very easy to read others of the 
same kind ; because you will not usually find very much 
new matter in them, which you have not already examined. 

IX. If the writer be remarkable for any peculiar excel- 
lences or defects in his style or manner of writing, make 
just observations upon this also ; and whatever ornaments 
you find there, or whatever blemishes occur in the language 
or manner of the writer, you may make just remarks upon 
them. And remember, that one book read over in this man- 
ner, with all this laborious meditation, will tend more to 
enrich your understanding, than skimming over the surface 
of twenty. 

X. By perusing books in this manner, you will make all 
your reading subservient, not only to the enlargement of 
your treasures of knowledge, but also to the improvement 
of your reasoning powers. 

There are many who read with constancy and diligence, 
and yet make no advances in true knowledge. They are 
delighted with the notions, which they read or hear, as they 
would be with stories that are told ; but they do not weigh 
them in their minds, as in a just balance, in order to deter- 
mine their truth or falsehood. They make no observations 
upon them, nor inferences from them. Perhaps their eye 
slides over the pages, or the words slide over their ears, 
and vanish, like a rhapsody of evening tales, or the shadows 
of a cloud, flying over a green field in a summer's day. 

Or if they review them sufficiently to fix them in their 
remembrance, it is merely with a design to tell the tale over 
again, and shew, what men of learning they are. Thus 
they dream out their days in a course of reading, without 

Why do many read with con- i Meaning of rhapsody? 
stancy and diligence, without ad- ] What is their chief object, if they 
vancing in knowledge '1 \ review . ? 

6* 



66 OF READING AND BOOKS. 

real advantage. As a man may be eating all day, and for 
want of digestion, never be nourished ; so these endless 
readers may cram themselves in vain with intellectual food, 
without real improvement, for want of digesting it by proper 
reflections. 

XL Be diligent, therefore, in observing these directions. 
Enter into the sense and argument of the authors, you read ; 
examine all their proofs ; and then judge of the truth or 
falsehood of their opinions ; and thereby you will not only 
gain a rich increase of your understandings, by those truths, 
which the author teaches, when you see them well sup- 
ported, but you will acquire also by degrees, a habit of 
judging justly, and of reasoning well, in imitation of the 
good writer, whose works you peruse. 

This is laborious indeed. ; and the mind is backward to 
undergo the fatigue of weighing every argument, and 
tracing every thing to its original. It is much less labor to 
take all things upon trust. Believing is much easier, than 
arguing. But when Studentio had once persuaded his mind 
to tie itself down to this method, he sensibly gained an 
admirable facility to read, and judge of what he read ; and 
the man made large advances in the pursuit of truth ; while 
Plumbinus and Plumeo made less progress, though they 
had read over more folios. Plumeo skimmed over the pages, 
like a swallow over the flowery meads in May. Plumbinus 
read every line and syllable ; but did not give himself the 
trouble of thinking and judging about them. They botli 
could boast in company of their great reading ; for they 
knew more titles and pages than Studentio, but were far 
less acquainted with science. 

I confess, those whose reading is designed only to fit 
them for much talk, and little knowledge, may content 
themselves to run over their authors in such a sudden and 
trifling way. They may devour libraries in this manner, 
yet be poor reasoners at last, and have no solid wisdom 
nor true learning. The traveller, who walks on fair and 
softly, in a course that points right, and examines every 
turning, before he ventures upon it, will come sooner and 
safer to his journey's end, than he, who runs through every 
lane he meets, though he gallops full speed all the day. 

What most important habit may ? Which read most, Studentio, or 
we acquire, by attending closely to I Plumeo and Plumbinus'? 
the sense and arguments of an au- j Which was the most learned 1 
thor 1 I Who may content themselves, to 

In what, did Studentio gain an I run over their authors in a sudden 
admirable facility ?— How 1 \ and trifling manner? 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 67 

The man of much reading- and a large retentive memory, 
but without meditation, may become, in the sense of the 
world, a knowing man 5 and if he converses much with the 
ancients, he may attain the fame of learning- too ; but he 
spends his days afar off from wisdom and true judgment, 
and possesses very little of the substantial riches of the 
mind. 

XII. Never apply yourself to read any human author, 
with a determination before-hand, either for or against him, 
nor with a settled resolution to believe or disbelieve, to con- 
firm or to oppose whatsoever he says ; but always read with 
design to lay your mind open to truth, and to embrace it, 
as well as to reject every falsehood, though it appears under 
ever so fair a disguise. How unhappy are those men, who 
seldom take an author into their hands, but they have deter- 
mined before they begin, whether they will like or dislike 
him ! They have got some notion of his name, his charac- 
ter, his party or his principles, by general conversation, or 
perhaps by some slight view of a few pages ; and having 
all their own opinions adjusted before hand, they read all 
that he writes with a prepossession either for or against 
him. Unhappy those, who hunt and purvey for a party, and 
scrape together out of every author, all those things, and 
those only, which favor their own tenets, while they despise 
and neglect all the rest ! 

XIII. Yet take this caution. I would not be understood 
here, as though I persuaded a person to live without any 
settled principles, by which to judge of men and books and 
things ; or, that I would keep a man always doubting about 
his foundations. The chief things that I design in this ad- 
vice, are these three ; 

1. After our most necessary and important principles of 
science, prudence and religion are settled upon good 

f rounds, with regard to our present conduct and our future 
opes, we should read with a just freedom of thought, all 
those books, which treat of such subjects, as may admit of 
doubt and reasonable dispute. Nor should any of our opin- 
ions be so resolved upon, especially in younger years, as 
never to hear or to bear an opposition to them. 

To what, should we always keep f Meaning of purvey? — tenet?* 

our minds open, when we read ? 5 What caution should we exercise, 

What should we determine to re- \ in reading authors, who defend our 

ject *? I own sentiments 1— of contrary senti- 

With what predetermination, do i menlsl 

many commence reading a book 1 \ 



68 OF READING AND BOOKS. 

2. When we peruse those authors, who defend our own 
settled sentiments, we should not take all their arguings for 
just and solid ; but we should make a wise distinction be- 
tween the corn and the chaff, between solid reasoning and 
the mere superficial colors of it. Nor should we readily 
swallow all the lesser opinions, because we agree with 
them in the greater. 

3. When we read those authors, which oppose our most 
certain and established principles, we should be ready to 
receive any information from them on other points, and not 
abandon at once, every thing they say, though we are well 
fixed in opposition to their main point of arguing. 



Fas est, et ab hoste doceri., Virg. 

Seize upon truth, wherever 'tis found, 
Among your friends, among your foes, - 

On Christian or on Heathen ground. 
The flower's divine, where'er it grows. 
Neglect the prickles, and assume the rose. 

XIV. What I have said hitherto on this subject, relating 
to books and reading, must be chiefly understood of that 
sort of books, and those hours of our reading and study, 
whereby we design to improve the intellectual powers of 
the mind with natural, moral or divine knowledge. As for 
those treatises, which are written to direct, or to enforce 
and persuade, our practice, there is one thing further neces- 
sary ; and that is, that when our consciences are convinced, 
that these rules of prudence or duty belong to us, and re- 
quire our conformity to them, we should then call ourselves 
to account, and inquire seriously, whether we have put 
them in practice or not, we should dwell upon the argu- 
ments, and impress the motives and methods of persuasion 
upon our own hearts, till we feel the force and power of 
them inclining us to the practice of the things, which are 
there recommended. 

If folly or vice be represented in its open colors, or its 
secret disguises, let us search our hearts, and review our 
lives, and inquire, how far we are criminal. Nor should we 



Meaning of sentiment? ? chiefly relate 1 

Literal meaning of the Latin max- > What inquiry should we make, 
im, Fas est ab hoste doceri ? It is j when we read practical works ? 
lawful to be taught by an enemy. \ Upon what, should we impress 

Can you repeat the paraphrase, \ the sentiment 1 
contained in 5 lines of poetry 1 ; What if folly and vice are discus- 

To what kind of improvement, do \ sed ? 
the preceding remarks upon reading, \ Which is most valuable, knowl 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 69 

ever think, we have done with the treatise, till we feel our- 
selves in sorrow for our past misconduct, and aspiring after 
a victory over those vices, or till we find a cure of those 
follies, begun to be wrought upon our souls. 

In all our studies and pursuits of knowledge, let us re- 
member, that virtue and vice, sin and holiness, and the con- 
formation of our hearts and lives to the duties of true reli- 
gion and morality, are things of far more consequence, than 
all the furniture of our understandings, and the richest 
treasures of mere speculative knowledge ; and that, because 
they have a more immediate and effectual influence upon 
our eternal felicity or eternal sorrow. 

XV. There is yet another sort of books, of which it is 
proper I should say something, while I am treating on this 
subject ; and these are history, poesy, travels, books of 
diversion or amusement ; among which, we may reckon also 
little common pamphlets, newspapers or such like. For 
many of these, I confess, once reading may be sufficient, 
where there is a tolerably good memory. 

Or when several persons are in company, and one reads 
to the rest such writings, once hearing may be sufficient; 
provided, that every one be so attentive, and so free, as to 
make occasional remarks on such lines or sentences, such 
periods or paragraphs, as in his opinion, deserve it. Now 
all those paragraphs or sentiments deserve a remark, which 
are new and uncommon, are noble and excellent for the 
matter of them, are strong and convincing for the argument 
contained in them, are beautiful and elegant for the lan- 
guage or the manner, or in any way, worthy of a second 
rehearsal ; and at the request of any of the company, let 
those paragraphs be read again. 

Such parts also of these writings, as may happen to be 
remarkably stupid or silly, false or incorrect, should become 
subjects of an occasional criticism, made by some of the 
company ; and this may give occasion to the repetition of 
them for; confirmation of the censure, for amusement .or 
diversion. 

edge and mental improvement, or I moral duties. — of holiness? Con- 

virtne and holiness 1 ? formity of heart and life to the law 

What may be the effect of knowl- 5 of God. 

edge and mental improvement, with- ? Mention some kinds of books, of 

out virtue and holiness 1 To sink j which once reading may in general, 

the mind in disgrace and misery for- j be thought sufficient, 

ever. — with virtue and holiness 1 \ Which class of these books, should 

To raise the mind in eternal honor I be closely and abundantly studied 1 

and felicity. j Those upon history, at least, such 

Meaning of virtue? Practice of | as are good. 



70 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 



Why is history worthy of such at- 
tention 1 ] It is full of instruction, 
and very improving to the mind. 

What peculiar honor has God con- 
ferred upon history ? More than 
half the Bible is history. 

Why is history better than almost 
any other branch for children 1 Be- 
cause it is so intelligible, interest- 
ing and instructive. 

What history is most important ') 
Sacred history. 

Meaning of sacred history? His- 
tory, contained in the Bible. 

What history is next in import- 
ance to us 1 That of our own coun- 
try, of England, and of the church 
generally. 

What is the history of the church 
generally called ? Ecclesiastical his- 
tory. 

Meaning of church, as here used ? 
All the Christian churches, that 
have been known to exist. 

Upon what branches of knowl- 
edge, does history throw light 1 
Upon all. 

What branches are peculiarly 
needful, to prepare for gaining a 
good acquaintance with history 1 
Arithmetic, geography and chronolo- 
gy. Meaning of chronology? 

What are called the two eyes of 
history? Geography and chronolo- 
gy- 
Should these be studied before 
history, or in connection with it? 
Both ; but chiefly the latter. 

Meaning of poesy ? 

How has God manifested his re- 
gard for poetry 1 A considerable 
part of the Bible was originally writ- 
ten in poetry. 

What parts 1 Most of Job and 
Isaiah, the whole of Psalms, various 
other songs, &.c. 

How has Watts manifested his \ 
regard for poetry 1 By writing so \ 
much. i 

Most useful part of Watts's works? ] 

What two English poems, are j 
considered more valuable than any j 
other 1 Young's Night Thoughts, I 
and Pollok's Course of Time. 

What stamps superior value upon j 
these? They are thought to con- j 
tain more excellent instructions, and j 
more lines, that are worth commit- j 
ting to memory, than any other ; 
poems. ] 



I Grand objections, that many have 
I felt, to these poems 1 That they are 
I too serious, dark and gloomy. 
! How have many others felt in re- 
: lation to these objections 1 That 
j these poems are on the whole, 
: really most animating and delight- 
i ful. 

Whence the difference 1 Prin- 
cipally from different poetic and re- 
ligious taste. 

Why is it, that some serious per- 
sons do not admire the sentiments 
| of these poems 1 Probably from not 
: knowing them, or from some un- 
■ happy bias against them. 

What is generally considered the 
greatest fault of the Night Thoughts'? 
its obscurity. 

Meaning of obscurity ? 
Principal cause of this obscurity ? 
Its conciseness. 
Meaning of conciseness ? 
What advantage, may be derived 
from this obscurity 1 Great mental 
improvement, in finding out the 
meaning. 

What other English poems, have 
been greatly and extensively admir- 
ed 1 Milton's Paradise Lost, Pope's 
Essay on Man, Thompson's Seasons, 
Cowper's Task. 

What striking excellence, is each 
of thesdhought to possess 1 Great 
poetic merit. 

What great objection, has been 
made to Paradise Lost ? That it is 
suited to bias the youthful mind in 
favor of Satan, and of rebellion 
against God ; or to diminish the ob- 
horrence, that ought to be felt in 
view of them. 

Objection to the Essay on Man 1 
That it is tinctured with infidelity. 
Meaning of infidelity ? 
Objection to the Seasons ? That 
it contains no gospel. 

Objection to the Task 1 That it 
contains much that is trifling. 

Which of these six poems, has 
probably been most frequently pub- 
lished 1 The Essay on Man. 

Which next? Young's Night 
Thoughts. 

What does this indicate'? That 
the public are most fond of reading 
these. 

What other English poems are 
much admired and praised 1 Aken- 
side's Pleasures of Imagination, 



/ OF READING AND BOOKS. 71 

Still, let it be remembered, that where the historical nar- 
ration is of considerable moment, where the poesy, oratory, 
&c. shine with some degrees of perfection and glory, a sin- 
gle reading is neither sufficient to satisfy a mind, that has 
a true taste for this sort of writings ; nor can we make the 
fullest and best improvement of them, without proper re- 
views, and that in our retirement, as well as in company. 
Who is there, that has any taste for polite writings, that 
would be sufficiently satisfied with hearing the beautiful 
pages of Steele or Addison, the admirable descriptions of 
Virgil or Milton, or some of the finest poems of Pope, 
Young or Dryden, once read, and then to lay them by for- 
ever ? 

XVI. Among these writings of the latter kind, we may^ 
justly reckon short miscellaneous essays on all manner of 
subjects; such as the Occasional Papers, the Tattlers, the 
Spectators, and some other books, that have been compiled 
out of the weekly or daily products of the press ; wherein 
are contained' a great number of bright thoughts, ingenious 
remarks, and admirable observations, which have had a con- 
siderable share in furnishing the present age with knowl- 
edge and politeness. 

1 wish every paper among these writings could be re- 
commended, both as innocent and useful. I wish every 
unseemly idea and wanton expression had been banished 

Campbell's Pleasures of Hope, and ( tioned. 

Trumbull's M'Fingal, besides a mul- \ Why is the study of English poetry 

titude of smaller poems.* j the most useful 1 It is vastly more 

Can you name some of the poems, \ instructive, and affords us much 
mentioned in the note 1 s more assistance to understand En- 

Which do you like best 1 ] glish. 

Chief argument, used by many, I Poetic character of Shakspeare, 
for studying other languages ? The \ Dryden and Byron 1 They are just- 
mental improvement, derived from I ly ranked among the greatest poets, 
the effort to understand words and j that ever lived, 
phrases. I Grand objection to their poems? 

By what other study, may the I That from their immoral tendency, 
same advantage be gained 1 By j they are likely to do more harm 
studying our own poets. ] than good, at least to some. 

Are they not too easy 1 They are I Can you mention some of Watts's 
so difficult, that probably no one \ remarks upon social reading 1 
ever understood perfectly all the \ What wish, does Watts express 
poems, that have been just men- \ concerning the Spectator, &c 1 



* Among the finest of these, are Thomson's Hymn to the Seasons, Gold- 
smith's Traveller and Deserted Village, Porteus on Death, Byron's Dream 
on Darkness, and Destruction of the Assyrians, Watts's Hero's School of 
Morality, Pope's Messiah, Essay on Criticism and Dying Christian, Gray's 
Elegy in a Country Church Yard, Campbell's Battle of Hobenlinden, Tap- 
pan's Missionaries' farewell, Montgomery's Departing Christian. 



72 OF READING AND BOOKS. 

from among them, and every trifling page had been ex- 
cluded, when bound up in volumes. But it is not to be ex- 
pected, in so imperfect a state, that every page or piece of 
such mixed public papers should be entirely blameless and 
laudable. Yet in the main, it must be confessed, there is 
so much virtue, prudence, ingenuity and goodness in them, 
especially in the eight volumes of Spectators, there is such 
a reverence of things sacred, so many valuable remarks for 
our conduct in life, that they are not improper to lie in par- 
lors or summer-houses or places of usual residence, to en- 
tertain our thoughts in moments of leisure. There is such 
a discovery of the follies, iniquities and fashionable vices 
of mankind, contained in them, that we may learn much of 
the humors and madnesses of the age, and the public world, 
in our own solitary retirement, without the danger of frer 
quenting vicious company, or receiving the mortal infection. 

XVII. Among other books, which are proper and requi- 
site, in order to improve our knowledge in general, or our 
acquaintance with any particular science, it is necessary, 
that we should be furnished with vocabularies and diction- 
aries of several sorts, namely, of common Avords, idioms and 
phrases, in order to explain their sense ; of technical words, 
or the terms of art, to shew their use in arts and sciences ; 
of names of men, countries, towns, rivers, &c. which are 
called historical and geographical dictionaries, &c. These 
are to be consulted, and used upon every occasion. Never 
let an unknown word pass in your reading, without seeking 
for its meaning in some of these writers. 

If such books are not at hand, you must supply the want 
of them, as well as you can, by consulting such, as can in- 
form you. It is useful to note down the matters of doubt 
and inquiry, and take the first opportunity to get them re- 
solved, either by persons or books. 

XVIII. Be not satisfied with a mere knowledge of the 
best authors, that treat of any subject, instead of acquaint- 
ing yourselves thoroughly with the subject itself. There 
is many a young student, that is fond of enlarging his knowl- 
edge of books ; and he contents himself with the notice he 

What other books should be much | What if no person near can in- 
consulted 1 | form you 1 Write down the words, 

General rule for consulting die- \ and find them in a good dictionary, 

tionaries, in the course of reading! \ as soon as possible. 

Best English dictionary 1 (See \ What direction is given respecting 

Introduction.) I matters of doubt and inquiry 1 

What if no auch book is at hand ? £ 



4 



OF READING AND BOOKS. 73 

has of their title-page, which is the attainment of a book- 
seller rather than a scholar. Such persons are under a 
great temptation to practise these two follies. 

1. To heap up a great number of books, at greater ex- 
pense than most of them can bear, and to furnish their 
libraries infinitely better than their understandings. And 

2. When they have got such rich treasures of knowledge 
upon their shelves, they imagine themselves men of learn- 
ing, and take a pride in talking of the names of famous 
authors, and the subjects of which they treat, without any real 
improvement of their own minds, in science or wisdom. At 
best, their learning reaches no farther than the indexes and 
tables of contents, while they know not how to judge of 
reason concerning the matters contained in those authors. 

And indeed how many volumes of learning soever a man 
possesses, he is still deplorably poor in his understanding, 
till he has made these several patts of learning his own 
property, by reasoning, by judging for himself, and remem- 
bering what he has read. ' 

Note IV, by the Editor. 

[ Writing Questions in Connection with Reading. — This 
method I have practised, more especially within a few 
years, and am more and more disposed to recommend it to 
others, at least to such, as can write with tolerable facility. 
It is among the best of all remedies for that evil disease — 
reading too fast. It is most happily fitted to promote medi- 
tation in connection with reading — most deeply to fix and 
invigorate attention, to ascertain in the first place, what the 
author means, and then, whether he is correct. It also con- 
duces, to make us take a view of what we read in its con- 
sequences and various connection. There is perhaps no 
exercise, more suited to promote the flow, the delightful 
flow, of thought, to teach the mind to think with advantage, 
and to improve the performer in composition and conversa- 
tion. It may promote self knowledge, as it may show in a 
considerable degree the state of the reader's mind. It is 
often, much more modest to state a remark in the form of a 
question, than in any other form. 

Whose proper attainment is the I title pages 1 — Second 1 
mere knowledge of title pages *? \ How may we make the contents 

First danger of the students who \ of books our own 1 
are principally ambitious to know \ Meaning of deplorable? 

7 



74 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 

Method. Make a book, of perhaps 3 or 4 sheets of paper, 
as it may contain a treasure worth preserving. Whatever 
important inquiry, reflection or remark occurs to you in 
reading-, write it down in the form of a question. If one 
question suggests another, write that also, and so on, with 
a dozen questions, if they should occur, and seem sufficient- 
ly important to deserve recording. These questions will 
furnish excellent materials for future consideration, medi- 
tation, inquiry and conversation. If you have some learned 
friend, whom you may wish to consult upon certain points, 
mark those questions particularly, upon which you may 
wish for his instructions. Are you afraid you shall be mor- 
tified in looking over your questions hereafter? — . that you 
will be tempted to say to yourself, " How could I be so fool- 
ish, as to write this question ?" Is not this, the very way 
to trace your intellectual "progress, and to lead you to per- 
ceive, and to thank God, that you grow wiser and wiser, 
from year to year ? Experience may enable you to make 
important improvements in this method.} 



CHAPTER V. 

JUDGMENT OF EOOKS. 

I. If we would form a judgment of a book, which we 
nave not seen before, the first thing that offers, is the title- 
page ; and we may sometimes guess a little at the import 
and design of a book by that ; though it must be contest, 
that titles are often deceitful, and promise more than the 
book performs. The author's name, if it be known in the 
world, may help us to conjecture at the performance a little 
more, and lead us to guess, in what manner it is done. A 
perusal of the preface or introduction, which I before re- 
commended, may further assist our judgment ; and if there 
be an index of the contents, it will give us still some ad- 
vancing light. 

If we have not leisure or inclination to read over the book 
itself regularly, then by the titles of chapters, we may be 

Give some account of the method, \ Mention some of the methods of 

described in Note IV 1 j forming some general idea of a book. 

Mention some advantages of that \ In what respect, are title pages 

method. \ often deceitful 1 

Subject of the fifth chapter 1 \ 



JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 75 

directed to peruse several particular chapters or sections, 
and observe, whether there is any thing- valuable or im- 
portant in them. We shall find hereby, whether the author 
explains his ideas clearly, whether he reasons strongly, 
whether he methodizes well, whether his thoughts and 
sense are manly, and his manner polite ; op, on the other 
hand, whether he is obscure, weak, trifling and confused ; 
or, finally, whether the matter may not be solid and substan- 
tial, though the manner or style is rude and disagreeable. 

IL By having run through several chapters and sections 
in this manner, we may generally judge, whether the trea- 
tise is worth a complete perusal or not. But if by such an 
occasional survey of some chapters, our expectation be ut- 
terly discouraged, Ave may well lay aside that book ; for 
there is great probability, he can be but an indifferent 
writer on that subject, if he affords but one prize to divers 
blanks, and it may be, some downright blot too. The 
piece can hardly be valuable, if in seven or eight chapters, 
which we peruse, there be but little truth, evidence, force 
of reasoning, beauty and ingenuity of thought, &c. mingled 
with much error, ignorance, impertinence, dulness, mean 
and common thoughts, inaccuracy, sophistry, railing, &c. 
Life is too short, and time is too precious, to read every 
new book quite over, in order to find, that it is not worth 
reading. 

III. There are some general mistakes, which persons 
frequently make in passing a judgment on the books, which 
they read. One is this. When a treatise is written but 
tolerably well, we are ready to pass a favorable judgment 
of it, and sometimes to exalt its character far beyond its 
merit, if it agrees with our own principles, and supports the 
opinions of our party. On the other hand, if the author is 
of different sentiments and espouses contrary principles, we 
can find neither wit nor reason, good sense nor good lan- 
guage in it. Whereas, alas, if our opinions of things were 
certain and infallible truth, yet a silly author may draw his 
pen in the defence of them, and he may attack even gross 
errors with feeble and ridiculous arguments. Truth in this 
world is not always attended and supported by the wisest 



What if we are led to form a very { Meaning of divers 7 — ingenuity ? — 

low estimate of a book, by a survey \ sophistry 1— railing ? 

of a few chapters i \ In what respect, are we likely to 

Why is it not well to read a book \ misjudge of a book, that favors our 

through, in order to know, that it is \ views or party 1 — a book that op- 

not worth reading 1 \ poses them 1 



76 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 

and safest methods ; and error, though it can never be main- 
tained by just reasoning-, yet may be artfully covered and 
defended 1 . An ingenious writer may put excellent colors 
upon his own mistakes. Some Socmians, who deny the 
atonement of Christ, have written well, and with much ap- 
pearance of argument, for their own unscriptural senti- 
ments ; and some writers for the Trinity, and satisfaction 
of Christ, have exposed themselves and the sacred doctrine, 
by their feeble and foolish manner of handling it. Books 
are never to be judged merely by their subject, or the opin- 
ion they represent ; but by the justness of their sentiments, 
the beauty of their manner, the force of their expression, or 
the strength of reason, and the weight of just and proper 
argument, which appears in them. 

But this folly and weakness of trifling, instead of argu- 
ing, does not happen to fall to the share of Christian writers 
only. There are some, who have taken the pen in hand, 
to support the Deistical or antichristian scheme of our days, 
who make great pretences to reason upon all occasions, 
but seem to have left it quite behind them, when they are 
jesting with the Bible, and laughing at the books, which we 
call sacred. Some of these performances would scarcely 
have been thought tolerable, if they had not assaulted the 
Christian faith, though they are now grown up to a place 
among the admired pens. I much, question whether several 
of the rhapsodies, called the Characteristics, would ever have 
survived the first edition, if they had not discovered so strong 
a tincture of infidelity, and now and then cast out a profane 
sneer at our holy religion. I have sometimes indeed been 
ready to wonder, how a book, in the main so loosely writ- 
ten, should ever obtain so many readers among men of 
sense. Surely they must be conscious in the perusal, that 
sometimes a patrician may write as idly, as a man of ple- 
beian rank, and trifle as much, as an old school-man, though 
it is in another form. I am forced to say, there are few- 
books, that ever I read, which made any pretence to a great 

By what, can error never be main- i Where was their chief influence ? 
tained 1 \ In Poland. 

Most distinguishing charactertis- \ By what characteristics shall we 
tic of the Socinians 1 {judge of books 1 By their truth. 

Meaning of Socinians? Followers \ their importance, and the excellence 
of Lelius and Faustus Socinus. \ of their style and manner. 

How were these men related ? i Meaning of characteristic 7 
Lelius was uncle to Faustus. \ To what, did the Deists of the 

Where were they born ? In Italy. \ last century, make great preten- 

When did they flourish 1 In the \ sions 1 
last half of the 16th century. j Meaning of Deist ?— of survive ? 



JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 77 

genius, from which I derived so little valuable knowledge, 
as from these treatises. There is indeed among them, a 
lively pertness, a parade of literature, and much of what 
some folks call politeness ; but it is hard, that we should be 
bound to admire all the reveries of this author, under the 
penality of being unfashionable. 

IV. Another mistake, which some persons fall into, is 
this. When they read a treatise on a subject, with which 
they have but little acquaintance, they find almost every 
thing new and strange to them ; their understandings are 
greatly entertained and improved, by the occurrence of 
many thnigs, which were unknown to them before ; they 
admire the treatise, and commend the author at once ; 
whereas, if they had but attained a good degree of skill in 
that science, perhaps they would find, that the author had 
written very poorly, that neither his sense nor his method 
was just and proper, and that he had nothing but what was 
very common or trivial in his discourses on that subject. 

Hence it comes to pass, that Cario and Faber, who were 
both bred up to labor, and unacquainted with the sciences, 
admire one of the weekly papers, or a little pamphlet, that 
talks pertly on some critical or learned theme, because the 
matter is all strange and new to them, and they join to 
extol the writer to the skies ; and for the same reason, a 
young academic will dwell upon a Journal or an Observa- 
tor, that treats of trade and politics in a dictatorial style, 
and be lavish in praise of the author. While at the same 
time, persons well skilled in those different subjects, hear 
the impertinent tattle with a just contempt ; for thev know, 
how weak and aukward many of those little diminutive dis- 
courses are ; and that those very papers of science, politics 
or trade, which were so much admired by the ignorant, are 
perhaps, but very mean performances ; though it must be 
also confessed, there are some excellent essays in those 
papers, and that upon science, as well as upon trade. 

V. But there is a danger of mistake in our judgment of 
books, on the other hand also. For when we have made 
ourselves masters of any particular theme of knowledge, 
and surveyed it long on all sides, there is perhaps scarcely 
any writer on that subject, who much entertains and please3 
us afterwards ; because we find little or nothing new in 
him ; and yet in a true judgment, perhaps his sentiments 

How are persons likely to regard I How are we likely to judge of 
a treatise, upon a subject, of which \ books, upon subjects, with which, 
they know very little 1 \ we are most familiarly acquainted 1 

7# 



78 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 

are most proper and just, his explications clear, and his 
reasonings strong, and all the parts of the discourse are 
well connected, and set in a happy light. But we knew 
most of those things before ; and therefore, they strike us 
not, and we are in danger of discommending them. 

Thus the learned and the unlearned have their several 
distinct dangers and prejudices ready to attend them in 
their judgment of the writings of men. These which I 
have mentioned are a specimen of them, and indeed but a 
mere specimen ; for the prejudices, that wrap our judgment 
aside from truth, are almost infinite. 

VI. Yet I cannot forbear to point out two or three more 
of these follies, that I may attempt something toward their 
correction, or at least, to guard others against them. 

There are some persons of a fonvard and lively temper, 
who are fond to intermeddle with all appearances of knowl- 
edge, and will give their judgment on a book, as soon as 
the title of it is mentioned ; for they would not willingly 
seem ignorant of any thing, that others know. And es- 
pecially if they happen to have any superior character or 
passions of this world, they fancy they have a right to talk 
freely upon every thing that stirs or appears, though they 
have no other pretence to this freedom. Divito is worth 
forty thousand pounds ; Politulus is a fine young gentle- 
man, who sparkles in all the shining things of dress and 
equipage ; Aulinus is a small attendant on a minister 
of state, and is at court almost every day. These three 
happened to meet on a visit, where an excellent book of 
warm and refined devotions lay in the window. " What 
dull stuff is here !" said Divito, " I never read so much non- 
sense in one page in my life ; nor would I give a shilling 
for a thousand such treatises." Aulinus, though a courtier, 
and not used to speak roughly, yet would not allow, there 
was a line of good sense in the book, and pronounced him 
a madman, that wrote it in his secret retirement, and de- 
clared him a fool, that published it after his death. Politu- 
lus had more manners than to differ from men of such rank 
and character ; and therefore, he sneered at the devout ex- 
pressions, as he heard them read, and made the divine 
treatise a matter of scorn and ridicule ; and yet it was well 

What does he say of the number ? is mentioned ? 
of the prejudices, that pervert judg- | What did Divito, Politulus and 
mentl j Aulinus think of an excellent book 

Why will some give their judg- j of devotion? 
Iteent of a book, as soon as the title \ Why did they thus misjudge 1 



JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 79 

known, that neither this fine gentleman, nor the courtier, 
nor the man of wealth, had a grain of devotion in them, 
beyond their horses, that waited at the door with their 
gilded chariots. But this is the way of the world. Blind 
men will talk of the beauty of colors, and of the harmony or 
disproportion of figures in painting ; the deaf will prate of 
discords in music ; and those, who have nothing to do with 
religion, will arraign the best treatise on divine subjects, 
though they do not understand the very language of the 
scripture, nor the common terms or phrases used in Chris- 
tianity. 

VII. I might here name another sort of judges, who will 
set themselves up to decide in favor of an author, or will 
pronounce him a mere blunderer, according to the company 
they have kept, and the judgment they have heard past 
upon a book by others of their own stamp or size, though 
they have no knowledge or taste of the subject themselves. 
These, with a fluent and voluble tongue, become mere 
echoes of the praises or censures of other men. Sonillus 
happened to be in the room where the three gentlemen just 
mentioned gave out their thoughts so freely upon an ad- 
mirable book of devotion ; and two days afterwards, he met 
with some friends of his, where this book was the subject 
of conversation and praise. Sonillus wondered at their 
dulness, and repeated the jests, which he had heard cast 
upon the weakness of the author. His knowledge of the 
book and his decision upon it were all from hearsay ; for he 
had never seen it ; and if he had read it through, he had no 
manner of right to judge about the things of religion, hav- 
ing no more knowledge, nor taste of any thing of inward 
piety, than a hedge-hog or a bear has of politeness. 

When I had written these remarks, Probus, who knew 
all these four gentlemen, wished they might have oppor- 
tunity to read their own character, as it is represented here. 
Alas ! Probus, I fear, it would do them very little good, 
though it may guard others against their folly ; for there is 
not one of them, would find his own name in these characters, 
if they read them, though all their acquaintances would 
acknowledge the features immediately, and see the persons 
almost alive in the picture. 

VIII. There is yet another mischievous principle, which 
prevails among some persons in passing a judgment on the 
writings of others, and that is, when from the secret stimu- 

What did Sonillus think of the { What may such judges as Sonillus 
book 1— Why 1 \ be called 1 ' Echo-critics. 



80 JUDGMENT Or BOOKS. 

lation, of vanity, pride or envy, they despise a valuable book, 
and throw contempt upon it by wholesale ; and if you ask 
them the reason of their severe censure,, they will tell you 
perhaps, they have found a mistake or two in it, or there 
are a few sentiments or expressions, not suited to their 
humor. Bavius cries down an admirable treatise of phi- 
losophy, and says, there is atheism in it ; because there are 
a few sentences, that seem to suppose brutes to be mere 
machines. Under the same influence, Momus will not al- 
low Paradise Lost to be a good poem, because he had read 
some flat and heavy lines in it, and he thought Milton had 
too much honor done him. It is a paltry humor, that in- 
clines a man to rail at any human performance, because 
it is not absolutely perfect. 

Wise and just distinctions ought to be made, when we 
pass a judgment on mortal things ; but envy condemns by 
wholesale. Envy is a cursed plant. Some fibres of it are 
rooted almost in every man's nature ; and it works in a sly 
and imperceptible manner, and that even in some persons, 
who in the main are men of wisdom and piety. They know 
not, how to bear the praises, that are given to an ingenious 
author, especially if he be living and of their profession ; 
and therefore they will, if possible, find some blemish in 
his writings, that they may nibble and bark at it. They 
will endeavor to diminish the honor of the best treatise, 
that has been written on any subject, and to render it use- 
less, by their censures, rather than suffer their envy to lie 
asleep, and the little mistakes of that author to pass unex- 
posed. Perhaps they will commend the work in general 
with a pretended air of candor ; but pass so many sly and 
invidious remarks upon it afterwards, as shall effectually 
destroy all their cold and formal praises. I grant, when 
wisdom itself censures a weak and foolish performance, it 
will pass its severe sentence, and yet with an air of candor, 
if the author has any thing valuable in him ; but envy will 
oftentimes imitate the same favorable airs, in order to make 
its cavils appear more just and credible, when it has a mind 
to snarl at some of the brightest performances of a human 
writer. 

IX. When a person feels any thing of this invidious 

Why would not Momus allow i times commend a work in general 1 
Paradise Lost to be a good poem ? \ How will they destroy the force 

From what principle, do many j of their commendation'? 
pour contempt upon a book, by s How may a person cure such an 
wholesale ? 5 invidious humor ? 

In what manner, will they some- { 



JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 81 

humor working in him, he may by the following considera- 
tions, attempt the correction of it. Let him think with 
himself, how many are the beauties of such an author 
Whom he censures, in comparison of his blemishes, and 
remember, that it is a much more honorable and good 
natured thing to find out peculiar beauties than faults. 
True and undisguised candor is a much more amiable and 
divine talent than accusation. Let him reflect again, what 
an easy matter it is, to find a mistake in all human authors, 
who are necessarily fallible and imperfect. 

I confess, where an author sets up himself to ridicule 
divine writers and things sacred, and yet assumes an air of 
sovereignty and dictatorship, to exalt and almost deify all 
the Pagan ancients, and cast his scorn upon all the moderns, 
especially if they do but savor of miracles and the gospel, 
it is fit the admirers of this author should know that nature 
and these ancients are not the same, though some writers 
always unite them. Reason and nature never made these 
ancient heathens their standard, either of art or genius, of 
writing or heroism. Sir Richard Steele, in his little essay 
called The Christian Hero, has shewn our Savior and St. 
Paul in a more glorious and transcendant light, than a Virgil 
or a Homer could do for their Achilles, Ulysses or JGneas ; 
and I am persuaded, if Moses and .David had not been 
inspired writers, these very men would have ranked them, 
at least with an Herodotus and Horace, if not given them 
the superior place. 

But where an author has many beauties consistent with 
virtue, piety and truth, let not little critics exalt themselves, 
and shower down their ill-nature upon him, without bounds 
or measure ; but rather stretch their own powers of soul, 
till they write a treatise superior to that which they con- 
demn. This is the noblest and surest manner of suppres- 
sing what they censure. 

A little wit, or a little learning, with much vanity and ill- 
nature, will teach a man to pour out whole pages of remark 
and reproach upon one real or fancied mistake of a great 
and good author, and this may be dressed up by the same 
talents, and made entertaining enough to the world, who 

What authors, does Watts say, I upon the whole of a work, that ia 
are not the same as nature 1 \ due only to certain parts ? Whole- 
How may severe critics learn to \ sale critics. 
judge more favorably of the works \ Who was the most distinguished 
of others'? \ arch-bishop of Cambray 1 Fenelon. 
What shall we call those who | Where is Cambray 1 In the N. 
pour out the same praise or censure \ E. of France. 



82 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 

love reproach and scandal. But if the remarker would but 
once make this attempt, and try to outshine the author by 
writing a better book on the same subject, he would soon 
be convinced of his own insufficiency, and perhaps might 
learn to judge more justly and favorably of the performance 
of other men. A cobler or a shoemaker may find some 
little fault with the latchet of a shoe, that an Apelles had 
painted, and perhaps with justice too, when the whole figure 
and portraiture is such, as none but an Apelles could paint. 
Every poor low genius may cavil at what the richest and 
the noblest has performed. But it is a sign of envy and 
malice, added to the littleness and poverty of genius, when 
such a cavil becomes a sufficient reason to pronounce at 
once, against a bright author, and a whole valuable treatise. 
X. Another, and that a very frequent fault in passing a 
judgment upon books, is this, that persons spread the same 
praises or the same reproaches over a whole treatise, and 
all the chapters in it, which are due only to some of them. 
They judge as it were by wholesale, without making a due 
distinction between the several parts or sections of the per- 
formance ; and this is ready to lead those, who hear them 
talk, into a dangerous mistake. Floras is a great and just 
admirer of the late arch-bishop of Cambray, and mightily 
commends every thing he has written, and will allow no 
blemish in him ; whereas the writings of that excellent man 
are not of a piece ; nor are those very books of his, which 
have a good number of beautiful and valuable sentiments 
in them, to be recommended throughout, or all at once, 
without distinction. There is his "Demonstration of the 
Existence and Attributes of God," which has justly gained 
a universal esteem, for bringing down some new and noble 
thoughts of the wisdom of the creation to the understand- 
ing of the unlearned; and they are such as well deserve 
the perusal of the man of science, perhaps as far as the 50th 
section. But there are many of the following sections 
which are very weakly written, and some of them built 
upon an enthusiastical and mistaken scheme, akin to the 
peculiar opinions of father Malbranche ; such as Sect. 51, 
53. " That we know the finite only by the ideas of the 
infinite." Sect. 55, 60. " That the superior reason in man, 
is God himself, acting in him." Sect. 61, 62. "That the 
idea of unity cannot be taken from creatures, but from God 
only ;" and several of his sections, from 65, to 68, upon the 

What kind of a writer was Fenelon 1 



JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 83 

doctrine of liberty, seem to be inconsistent. Again, toward 
the end of his book, he spends more time and pains, than 
are needful, in refuting the Epicurean fancy of atoms mov- 
ing eternally through infinite changes, which might be 
done effectually in a much shorter and better way. 

So in his Posthumous Essays and his Letters, there are 
many admirable thoughts in practical and experimental re- 
ligion, and very beautiful and divine sentiments in devo- 
tion ; but sometimes in large paragraphs, or in whole chap- 
ters together, you find him in the clouds of mystic divinity, 
and he never descends within the reach of common ideas 
or common sense. 

But remember this also, that there are but few such au- 
thors, as this great man, who talks so very weakly some- 
times, and yet in other places, is so much superior to the 
greatest part of writers. 

There are other instances of this kind, where men of 
good sense in the mam, set up for judges ; but they carry 
too many of their passions about them, and then, like lovers, 
they are in rapture at the name of their fair idol. They 
lavish out all their incense upon that shrine, and cannot 
bear the thought of admitting a blemish in them. 

Milton is a noble genius ; and the world agrees to con- 
fess it. His Paradise Lost is a glorious performance, and 
rivals the most famous pieces of antiquity. But that reader 
must be deeply prejudiced in favor of the poet, who can 
imagine him equal to himself, through all that work. Nei- 
ther the sublime sentiments, nor dignity of numbers, nor 
force or beauty of expression, are equally maintained, even 
in all those parts, which require grandeur or beauty, force 
or harmony. I cannot but consent to Mr. Dryden's opinion, 
though I will not use his words, that for some scores of 
lines together, there is a coldness and flatness, and almost a 
perfect absence of that spirit of poesy, which breathes and 
lives and flames in other pages. 

XI. When you hear any person pretending to give his 
judgment of a book, consider with yourself, whether he be 
a capable judge, or whether he may not lie under some un- 
happy bias or prejudice, for or against it, or whether he has 
made a sufficient inquiry to form his justest sentiments 
upon it. 



What does Watts say of the gen- i poem 1 
ius of Milton 1 { When we hear a man criticising 

What does Watts say, Paradise \ a book, what silent inquiries should 
Lost rivals 1 \ we make 1 



What does he say against this \ 



84 JUDGMENT OF EOOKS. 

Though he is a man of good sense, yet he is incapable 
of passing a true judgment of a particular book, if he be not 
well acquainted with the subject, of which it treats, and the 
manner in which it is written, be it verse or prose ; or if he 
has not had opportunity or leisure to look sufficiently into 
the writing itself. 

Again, though he is ever so capable of judging on all 
other accounts, by the knowledge of the subject, and of the 
book itself, yet you are to consider also, whether there is 
any thing in the author, in his manner, in his language, in 
his^ opinions, and his particular party, which may warp the 
sentiments of him that judges, to think well or ill of the 
treatise, and to pass too favourable or too severe a sentence 
concerning it. 

If you find, that he is either an unfit judge, because of 
his ignorance, or because of his prejudices, his judgment 
of that book should go for nothing. Philographo is a good 
divine, a useful preacher, and an approved expositor of 
scripture ; but he never had a taste for any of the polite 
learning of the age. He was fond of every thing that ap- 
peared in a devout dress ; but all verse was alike to him. 
He told me last week, there was a very fine book of poems 
published on the three christian graces, Faith, Hope and 
Charity ; and a most elegant piece of oratory on the four 
last things, Death, Judgment, Heaven and Hell. Do you 
think I shall buy either of those books merely on Philo- 
gragho's recommendation ? 

Why would not Watts purchase ? a certain good divine 1 
a poem, on the recommendation of \ 

Miscellaneous Questions, No. 2. 

Why may a book be useful to { our assent, when we read human 

some persons, and not to others 1 \ authors 1 

For what object, should children ? Author of the Night Thoughts'? 
attend museums 1 { In what respect are title-pages i 

What is meant by dealing freely { often deceitful 1 
with an author 1 \ Who were Lelius and Faustus 

Greatest poem of Milton ? \ Socinus 1 

f How may we make the contents j When should we make some 

of a book our own 1 \ abatement of our favorable opinion 1 ! 

What sect of professed Christians \ How can we be continually en- - 

deny the atonement of Christ 1 | gaged for the improvement of ourr 

Who is most concerned to know ? minds, and for the acquisition of 1 

Hebrew, a minister or a lawyer ? \ knowledge 1 

With what limitation, should chil- { Who is likely to become a tattler ? 
dren be allowed to handle the ar- \ Why are we in peculiar danger: 

tides of a museum 1 } of embracing any errors, that we 

To what alone, should we yield | may find in Watts's writings? 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



85 



What fault in reading is almost 5 
universal ? 

Greatest poem of Young'? 

What does Watts say of the num- 
ber of prejudices, that pervert judg- 
ment ? 

What should we fetch down from 
the clouds and from the stars 1 

From what two evils, should we 
keep ourselves free, in making ob- 
servations ? 

What may sometimes require us 
to speak unfavorably of others ? 

To what, should we always keep 
our minds open, when we read 1 

Author of the Seasons ? 

How do echo-critics form their 
opinions of books 1 

Where may we see most of the 
works of God 1 

What observations are made by 
jaundiced eyes 1 

What measure with regard to 
evil-speaking, is calculated to defeat 
itself? 

What if an author would have us 
receive his opinions on human au- 
thority 1 

What inquiry should we make, 
when we read practical works 1 

Greatest poem of Thomson ? 

What authors, does Watts say, 
are not the same as nature 1 

Where may we see most of the 
works of man ? 

Upon what, do jaundiced eyes 
make yellow observations ? 

What is false induction *? 

Why should we believe the de- 
clarations of God 1 

What is more valuable, than 
knowledge and mental impovement? 

Author of the Essay on Man 1 

By what characteristics, shall we 
judge of books'? 

What are wholesale-critics 1 

What two branches of knowledge 
are most important 1 

Influence of envy upon our judg- 
ment of others . 

How may a young person be as- 
sisted in ascertaining, what books 
to read 1 

Why cannot God lie 1 

What may be the .effect of knowl- 
edge and mental improvement, with- 
out virtue and holiness 1 



Author of the Taskl 

Who was Fenelon "? 

How may we best learn the hate- 
fulness of vice? 

Of whom, are we most likely to 
think too favorably'? 

Why are recommendations of 
books often injurious *? 
1 What if we should always follow 
the judgment of others 1 

Effect of knowledge and mental 
improvement, with virtue and holi- 
ness 1 

Greatest poem of Cowper 1 

What hopeful sign should we 
particularly encourage in youth 1 

What special efforts should be 
made, to improve and enrich young 
minds, when observing new objects? 

What if books are recommended 
ignorantly, inconsiderately or wick- 
edly 1 

On what subjects, are we more 
especially bound to judge for our- 
selves 1 

Meaning of virtue 1 

Author of the Course of Time ? 

Against the errors of what author, 
should we be doubly guarded ? 

From what wrong motives, do 
persons sometimes read books ? 

Why should we judge for our- 
selves, upon the things of religion 1 

Meaning of holiness! 

Author of Paradise Lost 1 ? 

Greatest work of Pollokl 

Grand object, for which we should 
read books 1 

What does Watts advise Us to do, 
when we discover faults in books 1 

What English poems have been 
greatly admired 1 

Name, given to those, who hold 
to the being of God, but deny the 
Bible 1 

For whom, might museums be 
exceedingly useful ? 

With what authors, should we 
deal freely ? 

Advantages of making books, a3 
we read ? 

Character of Webster's Diction- 
ary 1 ? 

From what causes or circumstan- 
ces, are we in danger of judging in- 
correctly of books 1 



8 



86 OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS. 



CHAPTER VI. 

OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS AND LECTURES OF TEACHERS 

AND LEARNERS. 

I. There are few persons of so penetrating a genius, 
and so just a judgment, as to be capable of learning the 
arts and sciences without the assistance of Teachers. 
There is scarcely any science, so safely and so speedily 
learned, even by the noblest genius and the best books, 
without a tutor. His assistance is absolutely necessary 
for most persons, and it is very useful for all beginners. 
Books are a sort of dumb teachers. They point out the 
way to learning ; but if we labor under any doubt or mis- 
take, they cannot answer sudden questions, or explain pre- 
sent doubts and difficulties. This is properly the work of 
a living instructor. 

II. There are very few tutors, who are sufficiently fur- 
nished with such universal learning, as to sustain all the 
parts and provinces of instruction. The sciences are nu- 
merous, and many of them lie far wide of each other ; and 
it is best to enjoy the instruction of two or three tutors at 
least, in order to run through the whole Encyclopedia or 
Circle of Sciences, where it may be obtained. Then we 
may expect, that each will teach the few parts of learning, 
which are committed to his care, in greater perfection. But 
where this advantage cannot be had with convenience, one 
great man must supply the place of two or three common 
instructors. 

III. It is not sufficient that instructors be competently 
skilled in those sciences, which they profess and teach. 
They should have skill also in the art or method of teach- 
ing, and patience in the practice of it. 

It is a great unhappiness indeed, when persons by a 
spirit of party or faction or interest or by purchase, are 

Whose assistance do most per- I to have 1 — Why ? 

eons need, in learning the arts and \ Two grand qualifications, which 

sciences 1 \ every teacher should possess ? 

How many teachers is it desirable { 



OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS. 



87 



set up for tutors, who have neither due knowledge of sci- 
ence, nor skill in the way of communication. And alas, 
there are others, who with all their ignorance and insuffi- 
ciency, have self-admiration and effrontery enough to set 
up themselves ; and, the poor pupils fare accordingly, and 
grow lean in their understandings. 

And let it be observed also, there are some very learned 
men, who know much themselves, but have not the talent 
of communicating their own knowledge ; or else they are 
lazy, and will take no pains. Either they have an obscure 



Some reasons, why a learned man 
may be a very bad teacher ? 

Qualifications, desirable in a 
teacher? Knowledge, skill, piety, 
good character, zeal, affection, in- 
genuity, meekness, patience, au- 
thority, politeness, health. 

Meaning of ingenuity? — of meek- 
ness? 

Why should he be pious 1 He 
will be much more likely to use ef- 
fectual means for the highest benefit 
of his pupils. 

Why should a teacher endeavor 
to promote the salvation of his pu- 
pils 1 He has peculiar advantages 
for this object, and it is infinitely 
important. 

What scripture shows it to be sin- 
ful not to improve such advantage 1 
To him, &c. [See James 4 : 17.] 

Why should not a teacher be 
wholly employed in teaching his 
pupils literature, to the exclusion of 
religion ? Religion ii infinitely more 
important ; it vastly increases the 
importance of the other branches, 
and helps the pupil's progress in 
them. 

How does it help the pupil's pro- 
gress in other brandies ? It con- i 
duces to render his application more 
constant, vigorous and persevering, 
and he is more likely to enjoy the 
special blessing of God upon his 
studies. 

Are teachers hired to teach reli- 
gion 1 They generally are, at least, 
in some degree. 

How does this appear, when their 
employers say nothing upon the sub- 
ject 1 It is generally understood, 
that teachers will give their pupils 
aome religious instruction. 

What if parents are unwilling, 



I their children should be taught reli- 

\ gion 1 Probably no one ought to 

5 take such a school. 

\ Why should a teacher have a good 

moral character? That he may be 

respected by his pupils, and that his 

moral influence upon them, may be 

good. 

Why should a teacher have zeal 1 
He will do very little without it. 
The example of his zeal is also need- 
ful to awaken the genius of his pu- 
pils. 

Why should a teacher be affec- 
tionate 1 It is a thousand times 
better to draw children to their stu- 
dies, by the cords of love, than to 
drive them, by the rod of correction. 
It will conduce to make them love 
their studies, as long as they live. 

Why is it desirable, that a teacher 
should be ingenious ? To devise the 
best methods, and practise them in 
the best manner, as circumstances 
may vary. 

Why is meekness desirable in a 
teacher 1 To fortify him against the 
many provocations, to which he is 
exposed. 

Why should he be patient? He 
will probably find some of his pupils 
very ignorant, dull, stupid and slow 
in their progress. 

What teachers are in the greatest 
danger of failing in regard to such 
scholars 1 Those, who are the most 
bright and intelligent. 

Why are men of superior genius 
and learning very liable to fail in 
forming systems of education 1 They 
can hardly make due allowance for 
the weakness of common minds, 
and can hardly know the steps, by 
which, common minds proceed in 
improvement. . 



88 



OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS. 



and perplexed way of talking ; or they show their learning 
uselessly, and make a long periphrasis on every word of 
the book they explain ; or they cannot condescend to young 
beginners ; or they run presently into the elevated parts of 
the science, because it gives themselves greater pleasure ; 
or they are soon angry and impatient, and cannot bear with 
a few impertinent questions of a young, inquisitive and 



Why should a teacher possess au- 
thority 1 To render his kindness 
more striking and affecting, and to 
awe and govern those, who will not 
be ruled by love. 

Meaning of authority 1 Dignity 
and energy of character. 

When should a teacher's authority 
be directly manifested 1 Only when 
it is needful to maintain good order. 

Why is politeness desirable in a 
teacher 1 To win the hearts of his 
pupils, and improve their manners. 

What is true politeness 1 It is 
love, manifested in an easy, unaf- 
fected, graceful and winning man- 
ner. 

Why is it desirable, that the pu- 
pils' manners should be improved 1 
It may greatly conduce to their hap- 
piness and usefulness. 

What passage of scripture incul- 
cates politeness ? Charity doth not 
behave itself unseemly. 

Can we expect a teacher to pos- 
sess all these qualifications'] Per- 
haps rarely, if ever, in a high degree. 

What is the daily duty of a teach- 
asl By the most assiduous atten- 
tion, watchfulness and prayer, to be 
as useful to his pupils, as possible. 

How much time should a teacher 
devote to his pupils 1 If he is well 
paid for the whole of his time, jus- 
tice seems to require, that the whole 
should be devoted; and mercy may 
require the same, where his com- 
pensation is little or nothing. 

Why do young teachers often suc- 
ceed better, than those, who have 
had much experience ? 

How shall a teacher maintain his 
interest in his business 1 By mak- 
ing special preparation for every re- 
citation, and continual efforts to im- 
prove in the art of teaching. 

Duties of pupils 1 Attendance, at- 
tention, affection, obedience, docili- 
ty, respect, freedom of thought, 



gratitude. 

Meaning of freedom of thought? 
Practice of thinking and judging for 
himself. 

How should a teacher promote 
freedom of thought in his pupils 1 
By giving the reasons of his state- 
ments, as far as possible, and also 
by warning them against adopting 
his opinions, without examination. 

Why should a pupil attend school 
constantly ? The omission of a re- 
citation is a loss in itself, and ren- 
ders the pupil less capable of under- 
standing the next. 

Tendency of several absences ? 
To make the pupil unsteady, to 
destroy his relish for study, and 
fruslrate the little efforts, that he 
makes. 

Meaning of frustrate? 

Why should a pupil attend punc- 
tually 1 Every moment's absence 
is a loss to himself, and his tardy 
coining, an interruption to others. 

Meaning of punctual 1 — of tardy ? 

What important habit is punctual 
attendance likely to produce? 

What scripture represents punc- 
tuality as a virtue? That passage 
in the first Psalm, which compares' 
a godly man to a tree, that brings 
forth its fruit in season. 

Why should a pupil love his teach- 
er 1 For the sake of his own im- 
provement. 

What if the teacher is so unlove- 
ly, that the pupil cannot love him! 
Perhaps it may be better to be at 
play, than at school, at least, half 
of the time. It may be advisable 
for the pupil to quit the school, and 
better still for the teacher to quit. 

How should a pupil honor a 
worthy teacher ? By the best pos- 
sible conduct and improvement, and 
by always speaking of him in a 
respectful and affectionate manner. 



OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS. 89 

sprightly genius ; or else they skim over a science in a very 
slight and superficial survey, and never lead their disciples 
into the depths of it. ' 

IV. A good tutor has characters and qualifications, very 
different from all these. He is such a one, as both can and 
will apply himself with diligence and concern, and indefati- 
gable patience, to effect what he undertakes ; to teach his 
disciples, and see what they learn ; to adapt his way and 
method, as near as may be, to the various dispositions, as 
well as to the capacities of those, whom he instructs, and 
to inquire often into their progress and improvement. And 
he should take particular care of his own temper and con- 
duct, that there be nothing in him or about him which may 
be of ill example ; nothing that may savor of a haughty 
temper, a mean and sordid spirit ; nothing that may expose 
him to the aversion or to the contempt of his scholars, or 
create a prejudice in their minds against him and his in- 
structions. If possible, he should have so much of a natural 
candor and sweetness, mixed with all the improvements of 
learning, as" may convey knowledge into the minds of his 
disciples, with a sort of gentle insinuation and sovereign 
delight, and may draw them into the highest improvements 
of their reason, by a resistless and insensible force. But I 
shall have occasion to say more on this subject, when I 
come to speak more directly of the methods of the com- 
munication of knowledge 

V. The learner shou.a attend with constancy and care 
on all the instructions of his tutor ; and if he happens to be 
at any time unavoidably hindered, he must endeavor to 
retrieve the loss by double industry for time to come. He 
should always recollect and review his lectures, read over 
some other author or authors upon the same subject, confer 
upon it with his instructor, or with his associates, and write 
down the clearest result of his present thoughts, reasonings 
and inquiries, which he may have recourse to hereafter, 
either to re-examine them, and to apply them to proper use, 
or to improve them further to his own advantage. 

VI. A student should never satisfy himself with bare at- 
tendance on the lectures of his tutor, unless he clearly 
takes up his sense and meaning, and understands the things, 
which he teaches. A young disciple should behave him- 
self so well, as to gain the affection and the ear of his in- 

If a pupil has difficulties, relating i tempt to have them solved 1 
to his studies, how should he at- \ 

8* 



f 

90 OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS. 

structor, that upon every occasion, he may with the utmost 
freedom, ask questions, and talk over his own sentiments, 
his doubts and difficulties with him, and in a humble and 
modest manner desire the solution of them. 

VII. Let the learner endeavor to maintain an honorable 
opinion of his instructor, and needfully listen to his instruc- 
tions, as one willing* to be led by a more experienced guide ; 
and though he is not bound to fall in with every sentiment 
of his tutor, yet he should so far comply with him, as to 
resolve upon a just consideration of the matter, and try and 
examine it thoroughly with an honest heart, before he pre- 
sumes to determine against him. And then it should be 
done with great modesty, with a humble jealousy of him- 
self, and apparent unwillingness to differ from his tutor, if 
the force of argument and truth did not constrain him. 

VIII. It is a frequent and growing folly in our age, that 
pert young disciples soon fancy themselves wiser, than 
those who teach them. At the first view, or upon a very 
little thought, they can discern the insignificancy, weak- 
ness and mistake of what their teacher asserts. The youth 
of our day, by an early petulancy and pretended liberty of 
thinking for themselves, dare reject at once, and that with 
a sort of scorn, all those sentiments and doctrines, which 
their teachers have determined, perhaps after long and 
repeated consideration, after years of mature study, careful 
observation, and much prudent experience. 

IX. It is true, teachers and masters are not infallible, 
nor always in the right ; and it must be acknowledged, it is 
a matter of some difficulty for younger minds to maintain a 

What should a pupil do, before he 5 ers, for the improvement of their pu- 
* decides a point against his teacher 1 \ pils? Parents, ministers, school 

In what manner, should a pupil i committees and all, who can pro- 
discuss a question with his teacher? \ mote the object. 

What should be the conduct of a j What does Watts mention, as a 
teacher in such a case 1 He should \ frequent and growing folly in that 
encourage his pupil to ask ques- ' age? 

tions, and state objections freely, \ Tendency of such a disposition 1 
and endeavor to convince and satisfy I To infidelity and every evil work, 
him in the most kind and affection- \ Meaning of infidelity ? 
ate manner. j How should a teacher check such 

What should the teacher do, if he \ a disposition 1 Chiefly by affection- 
is convinced, that his pupil is in the I ate treatment and sound argument, 
right 1 He should acknowledge his \ What qualifications should a 
error. \ teacher possess, in order for this 1 

Maxim relating to this subject 1 \ Great knowledge, and fine powers 
He that is not willing to be taught \ of logic. 

by his pupil, ought never to have a 5 What does Watts here mention, 
pupil. | as a matter of difficulty for younger 

Who should co-operate with teach- { minds to maintain 1 



OF WRITERS OR SPEAKERS. 91 

just and solemn veneration for the authority and advice of 
their parents, and the instructions of their tutors, and yet 
at the same time, to secure to themselves, a just freedom 
in their own thoughts. We are sometimes too ready to 
imbibe all their sentiments without examination, if we rev- 
erence and love them ; or, on the other hand, if we take all 
freedom to contest their opinions, we are sometimes tempt- 
ed to cast off that love and reverence to their persons, 
which God and nature dictate. Youth is ever in danger of 
these two extremes. 

X. But I think, I may safely conclude thus ; though the 
authority of a teacher must not absolutely determine the 
judgment of his pupil, yet young and inexperienced learn- 
ers should pay all proper deference to the instructions of 
their parents and teachers, short of absolute submission to 
their dictates. Yet still we must maintain this, that they 
should never receive any opinion, whether conformable or 
contrary to the tutor's mind,, without sufficient evidence of 
it, first given to their own reasoning powers. 

It is thought best to omit the 7th chapter, as it 
would probably be useless to most learners, and of very 
little advantage to any. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OF INQUIRING INTO THE SENSE AND MEANING OF ANY 

WRITER OR SPEAKER, AND ESPECIALLY THE SENSE OF 

THE SACRED WRITINGS. 

It is a great unhappiness, that there is such an ambiguity 
m words and forms of speech, that the same sentence may 
be drawn into different significations ; whereby it comes to 

What deference should children i Meaning of phrase? An expres- 
show to parents and teachers'] \ sion, consisting of more words than 
— Meaning of deference ? I one, so united as to make sense. 

Hermeneutics.— Meaning of her- \ What is the difference between 
meneuttcs? The art of investigating \ explaining a phrase, and explaining 
and explaining the sense of words 5 the words, of which a phrase con- 
and phrases. 5 sists f In many phrases, some of 

1 rom what Greek word, is Her- l the words are used in a very pecu- 
meneutics derived? Hermeneuo.— { liar sense, or have scarcely any 
Meaning of hermeneuo ? To inter- j meaning, so that the sense of the 
P ret> i phrase cannot be gathered from 



92 



OF KNOWING THE SENSE 



pass, that it is difficult sometimes for the reader exactly to 
hit upon the ideas, which the writer or speaker had in his 
mind. Some of the best rules to direct us in this, are such 
as these. 

I. JBe well acquainted with the tongue itself, or language, 
wherein the author's mind is exprest. Learn not only the 
true meaning of each word, but the sense, which those 
words obtain, when placed in such a particular situation and 
order. Acquaint yourself with the peculiar power and 
emphasis of the several modes of speech, and the various 
idioms of the tongue. The secondary ideas, which custom 
has superadded to many words, should also be known, as 
well as the particular and primary meaning of them, if we 
would understand any writer. See Logic, Part I. Chap. 4. 
Sec. 3. 

II. Consider the signification of those words and phrases, 
more especially in the same nation, or near the same age, 
in which that writer lived, and in what sense they are used 
by authors of the same nation, opinion, sect, party, &c. 

In this way, we may learn to interpret several phrases of 
the New Testament out of that version of the Hebrew 
Bible into Greek, which is called the Septuagint. For 
though that version is very imperfect and defective in many 
things, yet it seems to me evident, that the holy writers of 
the New Testament made use of that version many times 
in their citation of texts out of the Bible. 



knowing the meaning of each word \ 
separately. 

Can you give an example 1 In 
the phrase, Not at all, the word at 
is used in a peculiar sense, and the 
word all, in a sense contrary to its 
usual meaning. 

Should we use absurd and ridicu- 
lous phrases 1 We should not, ex- 
cept such, as are so common, as to 
render it very difficult to drop them. 

How shall we learn the meaning 
of phrases ? As we do the meaning 
of words, at least, when we have 
dictionaries, in which phrases are 
explained. 

What does Watts represent, as a 
great unhappiness, relating to lan- 
guage ? 

With what, i3 it very important to 
be well acquainted, in order to learn 
the sense of an author 1 

What language is it most impor- 
tant to know, in order to understand 



an English book, that is not a trans- 
lation from another language ? 

In what, consists the knowledge 
of a language 7 Principally in know- 
ing the meaning of words and 
phrases. 

In what else, does it in some 
measure, consist 1 In knowing the 
relation, variation and proper col- 
location of words and phrases. 

What branch of literature treats of 
these subjects ? Grammar. 
Meaning of collocation ? 
Three principal methods of learn- 
ing the meaning of words 1 By ob- 
serving, how they are used in con- 
versation, how they are used in 
books, how they are explained in 
dictionaries. 

What other methods are some- 
times used 1 Showing the objects, 
signified by the words, making signs 
by motions of the hands, head, &c 
and by verbal explanations. 



OF WRITERS AND SPEAKERS. 



93 



III. Compare the words and phrases in one place of an 
author, with the same or kindred words and phrases, used in 
other places of the same author ; which are generally called 
parallel places ; and as one expression explains another, 
which is like it, so sometimes a contrary expression will 
explain its contrary. Remember always, that a writer best 



What is a verbal explanation 1 i 
It is telling, what a word means. \ 

In what way, does the child be- \ 
gin to learn the meaning of words ? \ 
By hearing them used, while he per- X 
ceives the objects. \ 

How do little children learn the J 
meaning of words, when the objects '{ 
are not perceived 1 By the connec- I 
tion, in which the words are used, \ 
and by verbal explanations. \ 

How do children often get wrong \ 
ideas of words ? By misjudging of | 
the connection,or by guessing wrong. \ 

When should parents and friends f 
begin to make it'.a business to teach £ 
the child words 1 Almost as soon I 
as he is born. \ 

How should this be done, during I 
his tender years 1 By showing him j 
multitudes of objects, pronouncing I 
their names, qualities, &c. and fre- j 
quently asking him, " What's that ? ( 
What is it good for 1 Where did it | 
come from 1 Who made it 1 How 
do you like it V &c. 

What if the child uses a word 
improperly! He should be kindly 
corrected, and the proper word 
should be suggested. 

Two special cautions in teaching 
a child words? Not attempt to 
teach him those, that are wholly 
above his comprehension, nor too 
many in a short time. 

What should parents do, that are 
not qualified to teach their children, 
as here recommended ? They must 
do the best in their power ; and this 
will enable them to do better, and 
better continually. 

Why have many parents scarcely 
any talent to teach their children ? 
Because they do not improve the 
little talent they have. 

What should parents teach chil- \ 
dren, respecting words, besides their \ 
signification 1 Good pronunciation, i 
good articulation, and all the pro- \ 
prieties of speech. $ 

Why will some knowledge of \ 



Latin assist us to know English ? 
About one sixth part of our words 
are derived from Latin. 

Can we not know the meaning of 
these words, without knowing their 
Latin origin 1 We can. 

How does this appear? Many 
good English scholars know nothing 
of Latin ; and most of our deriva- 
tives differ in signification from 
their foreign primitives. — Meaning 
of primitive 1 

What is implied in supposing that 
we cannot know the meaning of a 
word, without knowing its original 
in another language 1 That scarce- 
ly any person knows one quarter of 
our words, and that those which are 
not derived from other languages, 
cannot be known. 

What else does it seem to imply ? 
That in order to know a Latin or 
Greek word, we must know its 
primitive in some other language. 

What injury is sometimes impart- 
ed to a person's style by his knowl- 
edge of Latin 1 It is sometimes 
rendered stately, stiff, pompous and 
obscure, by the copious use of high 
sounding words. 

What compositions in English 
have probably been most injured by 
Latin ? Sermons. 

What part of the audience can 
generally understand very little of 
a written sermon ? Probably more 
than half. 

What then is the advantage of 
knowing the Latin originals 1 It 
may give us some general notion of 
the meaning of words, render the 
meaning more impressive, more per- 
manently remembered, and more 
easily recalled for use. 

With what should we compare an 
author's words and phrases, in order 
to understand them ? 

What are these generally called ! 

What does the author say of con- 
traries 1 

Who can best interpret a writer ? 



94 OP KNOWING THE SENSE 

interprets himself; and as we believe the Holy Spirit to 
be the supreme agent in the writings of the Old Testament 
and the New, he can best explain himself. Hence, that 
theological rule arises, that "fecripture-is the best inter- 
preter of scripture ;" and therefore concordances, which 
shew its parallel places, are of excellent use for interpreta- 
tion. 

Note V, by the Editor. 

[Concordance. — It is deeply to be lamented, that this ad- 
mirable help for understanding and impressing Scripture, 
is so little used. It has been stated by some one, that " the 
Poor Man's Library" should always contain at least three 
volumes, the Bible, Psalm Book and Concordance. Surely 
these three ought to be the inmates of every dwcing of 
man. It is exceedingly useful in rinding parallel passages, 
in fixing the scriptural meaning of words, and in finding 
particular passages, that we may wish to use in meditation 
or otherwise. The best works of this kind in our language, 
are unquestionably Cruden's and Butterworth's. Taylor's 
and Brown's are too small and imperfect, to answer the pur- 
pose in any considerable degree. Gaston's Collection of 
Scripture passages is a most valuable work, calculated to 
answer the same purpose in some respects, as a concord- 
ance. In this Collection, the Scriptures are principally 
inserted at large ; and it is excellent indeed for those, who 
wish to see in a few moments, what the Scriptures say of 
almost any sacred subject, that may occur to mind ; which, 
as the work has an excellent index, they can easily find. 
Butterworth's concordance, on account of its cheapness, 
will probably be preferred by most persons, to Cruden's.} 

IV. Consider the subject, of which the author is treat- 
ing, and by comparing other places, where he treats of the 
same subject, you may learn his sense in the place, which 
you are reading, though some of the terms, which he uses 
in those two places, may be very different. 

And on the other hand, if the author uses the same 
words, where the subject of which he treats is not just the 
same, you cannot learn his sense by comparing those two 

Best interpreter of scripture ? I What is a concordance 1 

Meaning of interpret! j Whose are the best 1 

What book does he mention, as \ Two other things, most important 
very useful in findin 6 parallels 1 \ to be considered .' 



OF WRITERS OR SPEAKERS. 95 

places, though the mere words may seem to agree. For 
some authors, when they are treating of a quite different 
subject, may use perhaps the same words in a very differ- 
ent sense, as Paul does the words faith and law and. righte- 
ousness. 

V. Observe the scope and design of the writer ; inquire 
into his aim and end in that book or section or paragraph, 
which will help to explain particular sentences ; for we 
suppose a wise and judicious writer directs his expressions 
generally toward his designed end. 

VI. When an author speaks of any subject occasionally, 
let his sense be explained by those places, where he treats 
of it distinctly and professedly. — Where he treats of any 
subject in mystical or metaphorical terms, explain them by 
other places, where he treats of the same subject in terms 
that are plain and literal. — Where he speaks in an oratori- 
cal, affecting or persuasive way, let this be explained by 
other places, where he treats of the same theme in a doc- 
trinal or instructive way. — Where the author speaks more 
strictly, and particularly on any theme, it will explain the 
more loose and general expressions. — Where he treats 
more largely, it will explain the shorter hints and brief in- 
timations ; and wheresoverhe writes more obscurely, search 
out some more perspicuous passages in the same writer, by 
which to determine the sense of that obscurer language. 

VII. Consider not only the person, who is introduced 
speaking, but the persons, to whom the speech is directed, 
the circumstances of time and place, the temper and spirit 
of the speaker, as well as the temper and spirit of the hear- 
ers. In order to intefpret scripture well, there needs a 
good acquaintance with the Jewish customs, some knowl- 
edge of the ancient Roman and Greek times and manners, 
which sometimes strike a strange and surprising light upon 
passages, which before were very obscure. 

VIII. In particular propositions, the sense of an author 
may be sometimes known by the inferences, which he 
draws from them ; and all those senses may be excluded, 
which will not allow of that inference. 

How shall an author be explain- j What customs should we know, 
ed, when he treats of a subject oc- ; in order to understand scripture ? 
casionally ? — metaphorically ? — very I How shall we gain an acquaint- 
briefly 1 — obscurely 1— Meaning of 5 ance with these? By studying 
metaphor? — of brief? \ Scripture history, Jahn's Archeolo- 

In order to understand a speech, j gy 1 Brown's Dictionary of the 

what should we particularly con- j Bible, Alexander's, Malcom's, &c 

sider 1 | Remark upon inferences 1 



96 OF WRITERS OR SPEAKERS. 

Note, This rule indeed is not always certain in reading 
and interpreting human authors ; because they may mis- 
take in drawing" their inferences ; hut in explaining scrip- 
ture, it is a sure rule ; for the sacred and inspired writers 
always make just inferences from their own propositions. 
Yet even in them, we must take heed, that we do not mis- 
take an allusion for an inference ; which is many times in- 
troduced almost in the same manner. 

IX. If it be a matter of controversy, the true sense of 
the author is sometimes known by the objections, that are 
brought against it. So we may be well assured, the apos- 
tle speaks against our justification in the sight of God, by 
our own works of holiness, in the 3d, 4th and 5th chapters 
of the Epistle to the Romans, because of the objection 
brought against him in the beginning of the 6th chapter, 
namely, What shall we say then ? Shall we continue in 
sin that grace may abound ? which objection could never 
have been raised, if he had been proving our justification by 
our own works of righteousness. 

X. In matters of dispute, take heed of warping the sense 
of the writer to your own opinion, by any latent prejudices 
of self-love and a party spirit. It is this reigning principle 
of prejudices and party, that has given such a variety of 
senses both to the sacred writers and others, which would 
never have come into the mind of the reader, if he had not 
labored under some such prepossessions. 

XI. For the same reason, take heed of the prejudices of 
passion, malice, envy, pride or opposition to an author, 
whereby you may be easily tempted to put a false and in- 
vidious sense upon his words. Lay aside therefore a carp- 
ing spirit, and read even an adversary with attention and 
diligence, with an honest design to find out his true mean 
ing. Do not snatch at little lapses and appearances of mis 
take, in opposition to his declared and avowed meaning , 
nor impute any sense or opinion to him, which he denies to 
be his opinion, unless it be proved by the most plain and 
express language. 

Lastly, Remember that you treat every author, writer, 

Why is not this a certain rule in | To what writings, does this more 
relation to human authors'? { particularly apply 1 

With regard to what writings, is \ What hook has prohably been 
it a certain rule 1 — Why 1 \ more misunderstood, than any other? 

By what special means, may we \ With what honest design, should 
sometimes understand controversial } we read every author ? 
writings 1 \ Golden rule for the treatment of 

What special caution does he give \ authors 1 
in matters of controversy 1 < 



OF CONVERSATION. 97 

or speaker, just as you -yourselves would be willing to be 
treated by others, who are searching out the meaning of 
what you write or speak ; and maintain upon your spirit, an 
awful sense of the presence of God, who is the judge of 
hearts, and will punish those who by a base and dishonest 
turn of mind wilfully pervert the meaning of the sacred 
writers, or even of common authors, under the influence of 
culpable prejudices. See more, Logic, Part I. Chap. 6. 
Sec. 3. Directions concerning the Definition of Names. 



CHAPTER IX. 



RULES OF IMPROVEMENT EY CONVERSATION. 

I. If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is 
a great happiness to be acquainted with persons wiser than 
ourselves. It is a piece of useful advice, therefore, to get 
the favor of their conversation frequently, as far as circum- 
stances will allow ; and if they happen to be a little reserved, 
use all obliging methods to draw out of them, what may 
increase your own knowledge. 

II. Whatsoever company you are in, waste not the time 
in trifling and impertinence. If you spend some hours 
among children, talk with them according to their capaci- 
ty ; mark the young buddings of infant reason ; observe the 
different motions and distinct workings of the animal and 
the mind, as far you can discern them ; take notice, by what 
degrees, the little creature grows up to the use of his rea- 
soning powers, and what early prejudices beset and endan- 
ger his understanding. By this means, you will learn how 
to address yourself to children for their benefit, and perhaps 
you may derive some useful philosophemes or theorems, 
for your own entertainment. 

III. If you happen to be in company with a merchant or 
a sailor, a farmer or a mechanic, a milk maid or a spinster, 
lead them into a discourse of the matters of their own pecu- 

Of whose presence, should we $ time in trifles ? 
maintain an awful sense 1 \ How should we talk with chil- 

With what kind of characters, is j dren 1 
it desirable to be acquainted 1 \ What should we mark in them 1 

i What if they are reserved ? \ On what, should we converse 

In what situation, should we par- \ with men of particular professions 1 
ticularly guard against spending our \ 

9 



98 OF CONVERSATION, 

liar province or profession ; for every one knows, or should 
know, his own business best. In this sense, a common 
mechanic is wiser than a philosopher. By this means, you 
may gain some improvement in knowledge from every one 
you meet. 

IV. Confine not yourself always to one sort of company, 
or to persons cf the same party or opinion, either in matters 
of learning, religion or the civil life, lest if you should hap- 
pen to be nursed up or educated in early mistake, you 
should be confirmed and established in the same mistake, 
by conversing only with persons of the same sentiments. 
A free and general conversation with men of very various 
countries and of different parties, opinions and practices, so 
far as it may be done safely, is of excellent use to unde- 
ceive us in many wrong judgments, which we may have 
framed, and to lead us into juster thoughts. It is said, 
when the King of Siam first conversed with some European 
merchants, who sought the favor of trading on his coast, 
he enquired of them some of the common appearances of 
summer and winter in their country ; and when they 
told him of water growing so hard in their rivers, that 
men and horses and laden carriages passed over it, and 
that rain sometimes fell down as white and light as feath- 
ers, and sometimes almost as hard as stones, he would 
not believe a syllable they said ; for ice, snow and hail, 
were names and things utterly unknown to him, and to his 
subjects in that hot climate. — He renounced all traffic with 
such shameful liars, and would not surfer them to trade with 
his people. See here the natural effects of gross ignorance. 

Conversation with foreigners on various occasions, has 
a happy influence to enlarge our minds, and to set them 
free from many errors and gross prejudices, we are ready 
to imbibe concerning them. Domicillus has never travel- 
led five miles from his mother's chimney ; and he imagines 
all outlandish men are Papishes, and worship nothing- but 
a cross. Tityrus. the shepherd, was bred up all his life in 
the country, and never saw Rome. He fancied it to be 
only a huge village, and was therefore infinitely surprised 
to find such palaces,' such streets, such glittering treasures 

From whom, may we gain im- $ From what evil, will-conversation 
provement ? \ with foreigners be likely to free us ? 

Why should we converse with \ What did Tityrus fancy Rome to 
various associates ? To avoid mis- \ be ? 

takes, and to gain more acquaint- i How was he affected, when he 
ance with human nature. I saw it 1 

What of the king of Siam ? 



AND OF PROFITING BY IT. 99 

and gay magnificence, as his first journey to the city shewed 
him, and with wonder he confesses his folly and mistake. 

Conversation would have given Tityrus a better notion 
of Rome, though he had never happened to travel thither. 

V. In mixed company among acquaintance and stran- 
gers, endeavor to learn something from all. Be swift to 
hear ; but be cautious of your tongue, lest you betray your 
ignorance, and perhaps offend some of those who are pre- 
sent. The scripture severely censures those, who speak 
evil of the things they know not. Acquaint yourself, there- 
fore, sometimes with persons and parties, which are far dis- 
tant from your common life and customs. This is a way, 
whereby you may form a wiser opinion of men and things. 
Prove all things, and hold fast that which is good, is a divine 
rule, and it comes from the Father of light and truth. But 
young persons should practise it indeed with due limitation 
and under the eye of their elders. 

^ VI. Be not frighted nor provoked at opinions different 
from your own. Some persons are so confident, they are 
in the right, that they will not come within the hearing of 
any notions but their Own. They canton out to themselves, 
a little province in the intellectual world, where they fancy, 
the light shines, and all the rest is darkness. They never 
venture into the ocean of knowledge, nor survey the riches 
of other minds, which are as solid and as useful, and per- 
haps are finer gold, than what they ever possessed. Let 
not men imagine, there is no certain truth but in the sci- 
ences which they study, and among that party, in which 
they were born and educated. 

VII. Believe, that it is possible to learn something from 
persons much below yourself. We are all short-sighted 
creatures. Our views are also narrow and limited. We 
often see but one side of a matter, and do not extend our 
sight far and wide enough, to reach every thing that has a 
connexion with the thing we talk of. We see but in part, 
and know but in part. Therefore, it is no wonder, we form 
not right conclusions ; because we do not survey the whole 
of any subject or argument. Even the proudest admirer 
of his own parts, might find it useful to consult with others, 
though of inferior capacity and penetration. We have a 

In what kind of company, should i To what, should we be swift 

we be particularly cautious of speak- j when in company ?— slow 1 

ing l^Why 1 ? At what opinions, should we net 

Of what things, should we never \ be frightened or provoked ? Mean- 
speak unfavorably ? { ing of caution 7 



100 l OF CONVERSATION, 

different prospect of the same thing, if I may so speak, ac- 
cording to the different position of our understandings to- 
wards it. A weaker man may sometimes light on notions, 
which have escaped a wiser, and which the wiser man 
might make a happy use of, if he would condescend to take 
notice of them. 

VIII. It is of considerable advantage, when we are pur- 
suing any difficult point of knowledge, to have a society of 
ingenious correspondents at hand, to whom we may pro- 
pose it ; for every man has something of a different genius, 
and a various turn of mind, whereby the subject proposed 
will be shown in all its lights, represented in all its forms, 
and every side of it turned to view, that a juster judgment 
may be framed. 

IX. To make conversation more valuable and useful, 
whether it be in a designed or accidental visit, among per- 
sons of the same or of different sexes, after the necessary 
salutations are finished, and the stream of common talk 
begins to hesitate, or runs flat and low, let some one per- 
son take a book, which may be agreeable to the whole com- 
pany, and by common consent, let him read in it ten lines, 
or a paragraph or two, or a few pages, till some word or 
sentence gives an occasion for any of the company to offer 
a thought or two, relating to that subject. Interruption of 
the reader should be no blame ; for conversation is the busi- 
ness ; whether it be to confirm what the author says, or to 
improve it ; to enlarge upon or to correct it ; to object 
against it, or to ask any question that is a-kin to it ; and let 
every one that pleases add his opinion, and promote the 
conversation. When the discourse sinks again, or diverts 
to trifles, let him that reads pursue the page, and read on 
further paragraphs or pages, till some occasion is given by 
a word or sentence, for a new discourse to be started, and 
that with the utmost ease and freedom. Such a method as 
this would prevent the hours of a visit from running all to 
waste ; and by this means, even among scholars, they will 
seldom find occasion for that too just and bitter reflection, 
" I have lost my time in the company of the learned." 

Why may we learn something t Why is not this uncivil ? 

from inferiors? \ When should the reading recom- 

Why is it desirable to converse \ mence 1 

with others upon difficult points ? \ What evil may this method pre- 

How may time be profitably spent, l vent 1 

when conversation declines 1 \ What bitter reflection might it 

When may any one interrupt the \ prevent among scholars ? 

reader 1 J 



AND OF PROFITING BY IT. 101 

By such practice as this, young ladies may very honora- 
bly and agreeably improve their hours. While one applies 
herself to reading, the others may employ their attention, 
among the various artifices of the needle. But let all of 
them make their occasional remarks or inquiries. This will 
guard a great deal of that precious time from modish trifling 
impertinence or scandal, which might otherwise afford mat- 
ter for painful repentance. 

Observe this rule in general ; whensoever it lies in your 
power to lead the conversation, let it be directed to some 
profitable point of knowledge or practice, so far, as may be 
done with decency ; and let not the discourse and the hours 
be suffered to run loose without aim or design ; and when 
a subject is started^ pass not hastily to another, before you 
have brought the present theme or discourse to some tol- 
erable issue ; or there be a joint consent to drop it. 

X. Attend with sincere diligence, while any one of the 
company is declaring his sense of the question proposed. 
Hear the argument with patience, though it differ ever so 
much from your sentiments ; for you yourself are very de- 
sirous to be heard with patience by others who differ from 
you. Let not your thoughts be active and busy all the 
while, to find out something to contradict, and by what 
means to oppose the speaker, especially in matters which 
are not brought to an issue. This is a frequent and un- 
happy temper and practice. You should rather be intent 
and solicitous to take up the mind and meaning of the 
speaker, zealous to seize and approve all that is true in his 
discourse ; nor yet should you want courage to oppose 
where it is necessary ; but let your modesty and patience, 
and a friendly temper, be as conspicuous as your zeal. 

XI. When a man speaks with much freedom and ease, 
and gives his opinion in the plainest language of common 
sense, do not presently imagine you shall gam nothing by 
his company. Sometimes you will find a person, who in 

How may this method be im- i lead, when duty requires, 
proved by a circle of ladies'] \ Second 1 Never engross con ver- 

To what, should we direct the | sation, when others should speak, 
conversation, when we can take the \ Third? Always keep the con- 
lead 1 | versation upon some profitable sub- 
How shall we decide, whether 1 ject. 
we ought to take the lead in con- j What does Watts say with regard 
versation 1 By considering our age, j to changing subjects'] 
qualifications and circumstances. I In what manner, should we hear 

First of 3 great rules for those, I the remarks of others 1 
who are qualified to lead in con- { What should we do, rather than 
versation 1 Be willing to take tho \ find out something to contradict 1 
9# 



102 OF CONVERSATION, 

his conversation or his writings, delivers his thoughts in so 
plain, so easy, so familiar and perspicuous a manner, that 
you both understand and assent to every thing he says, 
as fast as you read or hear it. Hereupon some hearers have 
been ready to conclude in haste, " Surely this man says 
none but common things. I knew as much before, or I 
could have said all this myself." This is a frequent mis- 
take. Pellucido was a very great genius. When he spoke 
in the senate, he was wont to convey his ideas in so simple 
and happy a manner, as to instruct and convince every 
hearer, and to inforce the conviction through the whole 
illustrious assembly ; and that, with so much evidence, that 
you would have been ready to wonder, that every one who 
spoke had not said the same things. But Pellucido was the 
only man that could do it, the only speaker who had attain- 
ed this art and honor. 

XII. If any thing seems dark in the discourse of your 
companion, so that you have not a clear idea of what is 
spoken, endeavor to obtain a clearer conception of it by a 
decent manner of inquiry. Do not charge the speaker with 
obscurity, either in his sense or his words ; but intreat his 
favor to relieve your own want of penetration, or to add an 
enlightening word or two, that you may take up his whole 
meaning. 

If difficulties arise in your mind, and constrain your dis- 
sent to the things spoken, represent what objections some 
persons would be ready to make against the sentiments of 
the speaker, without telling him, you oppose. This man- 
ner of address carries something more modest and obliging 
in it, than to appear to raise objections of your own, by way 
of contradiction to him that spoke. 

XIII. When you are forced to differ from him, who de- 
livers his sense on any point, yet agree as far as you can, 
and represent how far you agree ; and if there be any room 
for it, explain the words of the speaker in a sense, to which 
you can in general assent, and so agree with him ; or at 
least, by a small addition or alteration of his sentiments, 
shew your own sense of things. It is the practice and de- 

In what manner, did Pellucido { obscure? 
speak in the senate? . ] With what, should we not charge 

With what effect 1 \ an obscure speaker 1 

At what, would the hearers be | What if you dissent from him? 
ready to wonder 1 j Benefit of this manner of address ? 

Who else could speak like Pel- | When you are forced to differ 
lucido 1 \ from the speaker, in what manner, 

What if the speaker's remarks are \ should you express the difference 1 



AND OF PROFITING BY IT. 103 

light of a candid hearer, to make it appear, how unwilling 
he is to differ from him that speaks. Let the speaker know, 
that it is nothing but truth constrains you to oppose him ; 
and let the difference be always exprest in few and civil 
and chosen words, such as give the least offence. And be 
careful always to take Solomon's rule with you, and let 
your correspondent fairly finish his speech before you re- 
ply : for he that answereth a matter, before he heareth it, it 
is folly and shame unto him. Prov. 18 : 13. 

A little watchfulness, care and practice in younger life, 
will render all these things more easy, familiar, and natural 
to you, and will grow into habit. 

XIV. As you should carry about with you a constant and 
sincere sense of your own ignorance, so you should not be 
afraid nor ashamed to confess this ignorance, by taking all 
proper opportunities to inquire for farther information ; 
whether it be the meaning of a word, the nature of a thing, 
the reason of a proposition, the custom of a nation, &c. 
Never remain in ignorance for want of asking. 

Many a person had arrived at some considerable degree 
of knowledge, if he had not been full of self-conceit, and 
imagined, that he had known enough already, or else was 
ashamed to let others know, that he was unacquainted with 
it. God and man are ready to teach the meek, the humble 
and the ignorant ; but he that fancies himself to know any 
particular subject well, or that will not venture to ask a 
question about it, such a one will not put himself into the 
way of improvement, by inquiry and diligence. A fool may 
be wiser in his own conceit, than seven men who can ren- 
der a reason ; and such a one is very likely to be an ever- 
lasting fool ; and perhaps also it is a silly shame, which ren- 
ders his folly incurable. 

XV. Be not too forward, especially in the younger part 
of life, to determine any question in company, with an in- 
fallible and peremptory sentence, nor speak with assuming 
airs, and a decisive tone of voice. A young 1 man in the 
presence of his elders, should rather hear and attend, and 

Why should we wait, till the { to instruct 1 
speaker has finished his remark, be- \ Who is wiser in his own conceit, 
fore we reply to it 1 5 than 7 men, that can render a rea- 

For want of what, should we ] son 1 
never remain in ignorance 1 I Who should especially guard 

Why are some ashamed to ask | against forwardness in deciding a 
questions 1 l question ? 

Effect of self-conceit upon im- ] How should a young man gen- 
provement in knowledge 1 | erally conduct in the presence of hi3 

Whom are God and man willing f elders 1 



104 OF CONVERSATION, 

weigh the arguments, which are brought for the proof or 
refutation of any doubtful proposition. When it is your 
turn to speak, propose your thoughts rather in way of 
inquiry. By this means your mind will-be kept in a fitter 
temper to receive truth, and you will be more ready to cor- 
rect and improve your oAvn sentiments, where you have not 
been too positive in affirming them. But if you have mag- 
isterially decided the point, you will find a secret unwilling- 
ness to retract, though you should feel an inward convic- 
tion, that you were in the wrong. 

XVI. It is granted, indeed, that a season may happen, 
when some bold pretender to science may assume haughty 
and positive airs to assert and vindicate a gross and dan- 
gerous error, or to denounce and vilify some very impor- 
tant truth ; and if he has a popular talent of talking, 
and there be no remonstrance made against him, the com- 
pany may be tempted too easily to give their assent to the 
impudence and infallibility of the presumer. They may 
imagine, a proposition so much vilified can never be true, 
and that a doctrine, which is so boldly censured and de- 
nounced, can never be defended. Weak minds are too 
ready to persuade themselves, that a man would never talk 
with so much assurance, unless he were certainly in the 
right, and could well maintain and prove what he said. By 
this means, truth itself is in danger of being betrayed or 
lost, if there be no opposition made to such a pretending 
talker. 

Now in such a case, even a wise and a modest man may 
assume airs too, and repel insolence with its own weapons. 
There is a time, as Solomon the wisest of men teaches us, 
when a fool should be answered according to his folly, lest 
he be wise in his own conceit, and lest others too easily 
yield up their faith and reason to his imperious dictates. 
Courage and positiveness are never more necessary than 
on such an occasion. But it is good to join some argument 
with them, of real and convincing force ; and let it be 
strongly pronounced too. 

When such a resistance is made, you will find some of 

In what manner, should he pro- { With what, may we sometimes 

pose his thoughts 1 — Why ? \ repel the insolence of such a man 1 

What if he decides a point with { What caution should we use in 

great confidence, and is afterwards j such a case ? Not thus to oppose, 

convinced of his error 1 \ unless we are very sure to conquer. 

What are weak minds ready to \ Of what, is there danger in such 

conclude concerning a man who ? a case ? Furious debate, 
talks with great assurance 1 \ 



AND OF PROFITING BY IT. 105 

these bold talkers will draw in their horns, when their 
fierce and feeble pushes against truth and reason are repel- 
led with pushing and confidence. It is a pity indeed, that 
truth should ever need such sort of defences. But we 
know, that a triumphant assurance has sometimes support- 
ed gross falsehoods, and a whole company have been cap- 
tivated to error by this means, till some man with equal 
assurance has rescued them. It is a pity that any momen- 
tous point of doctrine should happen to fall under such 
reproaches, and require such a mode of vindication ; though 
if I happen to hear it, I ought not to turn my back and 
sneak off in silence, and leave the truth to lie baffled, bleed- 
ing and slain. Yet I must confess, I should be glad to 
have no occasion ever to fight with any man of this sort of 
weapons, even though I should be so happy as to silence 
his insolence, and obtain an evident victory. 

XVII. Be not fond of disputing every thing Pro and 
Con, nor indulge yourself, to shew your talent of attacking 
and defending. A logic, which teaches nothing else, is 
little worth. This temper and practice will lead you just 
so far out of the way of knowledge, and divert your honest 
inquiry after the truth, which is debated or sought.'; In set 
disputes, every little straw is often seized, to support our 
own cause ; every thing, that can be drawn in any way, to 
give color to our argument, is advanced, and that perhaps 
with vanity and ostentation. This puts the mind out of a 
proper posture to seek and receive the truth. 

XVIII. Do not bring a warm party-spirit into free con- 
versation, which is designed for mutual improvement in the 
search of truth. Take heed of allowing yourself in those 
self-satisfied assurances, which keep the doors of the un- 
derstanding barred fast against the admission of any new 
sentiments. Let your soul be ever ready to hearken to 
further discoveries, from a constant and ruling conscious- 
ness of our present fallible and imperfect state ; and make 
it appear to your friends, that it is no hard task_ for you to 
learn and pronounce those ! _little words, I ivas mistaken, how 
hard soever it is for the bulk of mankind to pronounce 
them. 

XIX. As you may sometimes raise inquiries for your 
own instruction and improvement, and draw out the learn- 

Influence of a disputatious spirit I What little humiliating words 
upon the acquisition of truth 1 \ should we he willing to pronounce, 

What is said of a logic, that teach- \ when convinced of error 1 
es nothing else ? s 



106 OF CONVERSATION, 

ing, wisdom and fine sentiments of your friends, who per- 
haps may be too reserved or modest ; so at other times, if 
you perceive a person unskilful in the matter of debate, 
you may by questions aptly proposed in the Socratic method, 
lead him into a clearer knowledge of the subject. Then 
you become his instructor, in such a manner, as may not 
appear to make yourself his superior. 

XX. Take heed of affecting always to shine in company, 
above the rest, and to display the riches of your own under- 
standing or your oratory, as though you would render your- 
self admirable to all that are present. This is seldom well 
taken in polite company. Much less should you use such 
forms of speech, as would insinuate the ignorance or dul- 
ness of those, with whom you converse. 

XXI. Though you should not affect to flourish in a co- 
pious harangue and diffusive style in company, yet neither 
should you rudely interrupt and reproach him that happens 
to use it ; but when he has done speaking, reduce his sen- 
timents into a more contracted form ; not with a show of 
correcting, but as one who is doubtful whether you hit upon 
his true sense or not. Thus matters may be brought more 
easily from a wild confusion, into a single point, questions 
may be sooner determined, and difficulties more easily 
removed. 

XXII. Be not so ready to charge ignorance, prejudice 
and mistake upon others, as you are to suspect yourself 
of them ; and in order to show, how free you are from pre- 
judices, learn to bear contradiction with patience. Let it 
be easy to you to hear your own opinion strongly opposed, 
especially in matters, which are doubtful and disputable 
among men of sobriety and virtue. Give a patient hearing 

What if you see a person unskil- \ listen patiently to arguments on all 
ful in debate ? \ sides 1 For the sake of gaining and 

What is said of attempting to \ supporting truth, and maintaining a 
gain admiration in company 1 We \ character for candor, 
should never attempt it. j Why should we be willing some- 

what should we be more ready to \ times, to listen to remarks, that ap- 
suspect in ourselves, than to charge 5 pear frivolous 1 The remarks may 
upon others 1 \ really be much better, than they 

When charged with these, what \ seem ; and our remarks may some- 
reply may we sometimes makel \ times appear equally frivolous to 
This remark of Watts. I others. 

With what feelings, should we { Meaning of frivolous? 
learn to bear contradiction 1 \ What if we certainly know, that 

What advantage will this give us? \ another's remarks are frivolous'? 
We shall be much better able to per- \ We may perhaps do him much good 
ceive and defend the truth. ? by kindly showing him, that they 

Why should we be willing to \ are so 



AND OF PROFITING BY IT. 107 

to arguments on all sides. Otherwise you give the com- 
pany occasion to suspect, that it is not the evidence of 
truth, which has led you into this opinion, but some lazy 
anticipation of judgment, some beloved presumption, some 
long and rash possession of a party scheme, in which you 
desire to rest undisturbed. If your assent has been estab- 
lished upon just and sufficient grounds, why should you be 
afraid to let the truth be put to the trial of argument ? 

XXIII. Banish utterly out of all conversation, and es- 
pecially out of all learned and intellectual conference, 
every thing, that tends to provoke passion, or raise a fire in 
the blood. Let no sharp language, nor noisy exclamation, 
no sarcasms or biting jests be heard among you ; no per- 
verse or invidious consequences be drawn from each other's 
opinions, and imputed to the person. Let there be no wil- 
ful perversion of another's meaning ; no sudden seizure of 
a lapsed syllable to play upon it, nor any abused construc- 
tion of an innocent mistake. ( Suffer not your tongue to 
insult a modest opponent, that begins to yield. Let there 
be no crowing and triumph, even where there is evident 
victory on your side. All these things are enemies to 
friendship, and the ruin of free conversation. The impar- 
tial search of truth requires all calmness and serenity, all 
good temper and candor. Mutual instruction can never be 
attained in the midst of passion, pride and clamor, unless 
we suppose, in the midst of such a scene, there is a loud 
and penetrating lecture read by both sides on the folly and 
shameful infirmities of human nature. 

XXIV. Whensoever, therefore, any unhappy word shall 
arise in company, that might give you a reasonable disgust, 
suppress the rising resentment, be it ever so just, and com- 
mand your soul and your tongue into silence, lest you can- 
cel the hopes of all improvement for that hour, and trans- 
form the learned conversation into the mean and vulgar 
form of reproaches and railing. The man, who begun to 
break the peace in such a society, will fall under the shame 
and conviction of such a silent reproof, if he has any thing 

What should we banish from \ sin and folly 1 
conversation, in order to preserve ] What does the Scripture say of 
peace 1 j the damnation of those, who do 

What caution should we exercise, \ evil, that good may cornel Rom. 
when our opponent begins to yield ? } 3 : 8. 

What is the only instruction, we \ What if. something occurs, that is 
can gain from passion, pride and \ very irritating 1 
clamor ? \ Who will be likely to feel such a 

Should we sin, and play the fool, \ silent reproof 1 — Meaning of irritate? 
for the sake of learning the evils of \ 



108 OF CONVERSATION, 

ingenuous about him. If this should not be sufficient, let a 
grave admonition, or a soft and gentle turn of wit, with an 
air of pleasantry, give the warm disputer an occasion to 
stop the progress of his indecent fire, if not to retract the 
indecency, and quench the flame. 

XXV. Inure yourself to a candid and obliging manner 
in all your conversation, and acquire the art of pleasing 
address, even when you teach, as well as when you learn, 
and when you oppose, as well as when you assert or prove. 
This degree of politeness is not to be attained, without a 
diligent attention to such directions, as are here laid down, 
and a frequent exercise and practice of them. 

XXVI. If you would know what sort of companions you 
should select for the cultivation and advantage of the mind, 
the general rule is, choose such as by their brightness of 
parts and their diligence in study, or by their superior ad- 
vancement in learning, or peculiar excellency in any art, 
science or accomplishment, divine or human, may be capa- 
ble of administering to your improvement ; and be sure to 
maintain and keep some due regard to their moral charac- 
ter always, lest while you wander in quest of intellectual 
gain, you fall into the contagion of irreligion and vice. No 
wise man would venture into a house infected with the 
plague, in order to see the finest collections of any virtuoso 
in Europe. 

XXVII. Nor is it every sober person of your acquaint- 
ance, no, nor every man of bright parts, or rich in learning, 
that is fit to engage in free conversation for the inquiry 
after truth. Let a person have ever so illustrious talents, 
yet he is not a proper associate for such a purpose, if he lie 
under any of the following infirmities ; 

To what manner of conversation, \ tation. 
should we inure ourselves ?— Mean- \ What if any one should exchange 
ing of i/iwre? f awkwardness and rusticity for af- 

What will afford the best oppor- | fectation 1 He would make a had 
tunity to cultivate such a manner: I bargain. 
Good company. ? What shall we think of those, 

Where is it most desirable, that \ who consider it of very little impor- 
every person should find such com- tance, how they regulate their man- 
pany 1 At home. ners in the family circle ? They do 

How might the members of most \ exceedingly err. 
families greatly improve their man- j dualities, desirable in a compan- 
ners 1 By treating each other much \ ion '\ 

more kindly and politely, and by \ dualities, undesirable m a corn- 
special efforts to cultivate propriety \ panion ? Reserve, pride, dogma- 
of speech and behavior. \ tism, assuming forwardness, rmper- 

Against what, should such re- I tinent loquacity, fretfulness, affecta- 
formers particularly guard 1 Affec- \ tion of wit, jealousy, &c. 



AND OF PROFITING EY IT. 109 

1. If he be exceedingly reserved, and has either no in- 
clination to discourse, or no tolerable capacity of speech 
and language for the communication of his sentiments ; 

2. If he be haughty and proud of his knowledge, imperi- 
ous in his airs, and always fond of imposing his sentiments 
on all the company ; 

3. If he be positive and dogmatical in his own opinions, 
and will dispute to the end ; if he will resist the brightest 
evidence of truth, rather than suffer himself to be over- 
come, or yield to the plainest and strongest reasonings ; 

4. If he be one, who always affects to outshine all the 
company, and delight to hear himself talk and flourish upon 
a subject, and make long harangues, while the rest must be 
all silent and attentive ; 

5. If he be a person of a whiffling and unsteady turn of 
mind, who cannot keep to a point of controversy ; but wan- 
ders from it perpetually, and is always solicitous to say 
something, whether it be pertinent to the question or not ; 

6. If he be fretful and peevish, and given to resentment 
upon all occasions ; if he know not how to bear contradic- 
tion, or be ready to take things in a wrong sense ; and if he 
be swift to feel a supposed offence, or to imagine himself 
affronted, and then break out into a sudden passion, or re- 
tain silent and sullen wrath ; 

7. If he affect wit on all occasions, and be full of his con- 
ceits and puns, quirks or quibbles, jests and repartees ; 
these may agreeably entertain and animate an hour of 
mirth ; but they have no place in the search after truth ; 

8. If he carry always about him, a sort of craft and cun- 
ning and disguise, and act rather like a spy, than a friend. 
Have a care of such a one, as will make an ill use of free- 
dom in conversation, and immediately charge heresy upon 
you, when you happen to differ from those sentiments, 
which authority or custom has established. 

In short, you should avoid the man in such select con- 
versation, who practises any thing, that is unbecoming the 
character of a sincere, free and open searcher after truth. 

Now though you may pay all the relative duties of life to 
persons of these unhappy qualifications, and treat them with 
decency and love, so far as religion and humanity oblige 
you, yet take care of entering into a free debate of matters 
of truth or falsehood in their company, and especially about 
the principles of religion. I confess, if a person of such a 

Can you think of any others, not \ Where should we especially watch 
here mentioned ? \ against these evils ? 

10 



110 OF CONVERSATION, 

temper happens to judge and talk well on such a subject, 
you may hear him with attention, and derive what profit you 
can from his discourse ; but he is by no means to be chosen 
for a free conference in matters of inquiry and knowledge. 

XXVIII. While I would persuade you to beware of such 
persons, and abstain from too much freedom of discourse 
among them, it is very natural to infer, that you should 
watch against the working of these evil qualities in your 
own breast, if you happen to be tainted with any of them 
yourself. Men of learning and ingenuity will justly avoid 
your acquaintance, when they find such an unhappy and 
unsociable temper prevailing in you. 

XXIX. To conclude ; when you retire from company, 
then converse with yourself in solitude, and inquire, what 
you have learnt for the improvement of your understand- 
ing, or for the rectifying your inclinations ; for the increase 
of your virtues, or the meliorating of your conduct and 
behavior in any future parts of life. If you have seen some 
of your company candid, modest, humble in their manner, 
wise and sagacious, just and pious in their sentiments, 
polite and graceful, as well as clear and strong in their 
expression, and universally acceptable and lovely in their 
behavior, endeavor to impress the idea of all these upon 
your memory, and treasure them up for your imitation. 

XXX. If the laws of reason, decency and civility have 
not been well observed among your associates, take notice 
of those defects, for your own improvement ; and from every 
occurrence of this kind, remark something to imitate or to 
avoid, in elegant, polite and useful conversation. Perhaps 
you will find, that some persons present have really dis- 
pleased the company, by an excessive and too visible 
affectation Jo please ; that is, by giving loose to servile 
flattery, or promiscuous praise ; while others were as ready 
to oppose and contradict every thing said. Some have 
deserved just censure for a morose and affected taciturnity. 
Others have been anxious and careful, lest their silence 
should be interpreted a want of sense ; and therefore, they 

What inquiry should we make of i please 1 
ourselves, when we retire from com- { Whom should we strive to please, 
pany ? — Meaning of meliorate? \ more than men ? 

What improvement should we j For what object may we please 
make of the example of those, who j men 1 Rom. 15 : 2. 
have shone in company with supe- 5 What class of men, is it most 
rior lustre and loveliness? — of bad I desirable to please 'J The wise and 
examples 1 \ good. 

What may sometimes be an un- I Best way to please the wise and 
happy effect of too great a desire to \ good? To please God. 



AND OF PROFITING BY IT. Ill 

have ventured to make speeches, though they had nothing 
to say, which was worth hearing. Perhaps you will ob- 
serve, that one was ingenious in his thoughts, and bright in 
his language ; but he was so full of himself, that he let it 
fall on all the company ; that he spoke well indeed, but that 
lie spoke too long, and did not allow equal liberty or time 
to his associates. You will remark, that another was full 
charged, or let out his Words, before his friend had done 
speaking, or impatient of the least opposition to any thing 
he said. You will remember, that some persons have talk- 
ed at large, and with great confidence, of things, which they 
understood not, and others counted every thing tedious and 
intolerable, that was spoken upon subjects out of their own 
sphere, and they would fain confine the conference entire- 
ly within the limits of their own narrow knowledge and 
study. The errors of conversation are almost infinite. 

XXXI. By a review of such irregularities as these, you 
may learn to avoid those follies and instances of ill con- 
duct, which spoil good conversation, or make it less agreea- 
ble and less useful; and by degrees you will acquire that 
delightful and easy manner of address and behavior in all 
useful correspondences, which may render your company 
every where desired and beloved ; and at the same time, 
among the best of your companions, you may make the 
highest improvement in your own intellectual acquisitions, 
that the discourse of mortal creatures will allow, under all 
our disadvantages in this sorry state of mortality. But 
there is a day coming, when we shall be seized away from 
this lower class in the school of knowledge, where we la- 
bor under the many dangers and darknesses, the errors and 
the incumbrances of flesh and blood, and our conversation 
will be with angels, and more illiiminated spirits in the 
upper regions of the universe. 

Why do many make speeches, i verse hereafter 1 

when they have nothing to say { Five qualifications most desirable 

worth hearing ? \ for conversation? Piety, knowl- 

By imitating the excellences and | edge, mental improvement, elo- 

avoiding the faults, that we witness \ quence and good manners, 

in company, what manner of ad- j If a person can converse properly, 

dress may we gradually acquire 1 \ fluently, pleasingly and forcibly, is 

What more solid acquisitions may \ it needful, that he should be elo- 

we gain ? \ qiient 1 Speaking thus is eloquence 

With whom, will good men con- j 



112 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



Miscellaneous Questions, No. 3. 



What branch of knowledge most i 
helps all others ! \ 

What important instructions may i 
we receive from that scripture, \ 
which represents the good man as \ 
bringing forth his fruit in his season ? \ 

In what manner, should a pupil \ 
discuss a point with his teacher 1 \ 

How may time be profitably spent, \ 
when conversation declines ? 

How should a young man general- \ 
ly conduct in presence of his elders ? j 

What are some reasons, why a \ 
learned man may be a very bad f 
teacher ? 5 

Why should a teacher have a \ 
good moral character ? 

How should a pupil honor his 
teacher ? 

What science investigates and 
explains the sense of words and 
phrases ? 

To what, should we direct the 
conversation, wheel we take the 
lead ? 

With what feelings, should we 
learn to bear contradiction 1 

Qualifications desirabl&in a teach- 
er 1 

Why should a teacher have zeal 1 

Why should a pupil attend school 
punctually 1 

What should a pupil do before he 
decides a point against his teacher 1 

Three principal methods of learn- 
ing the meaning of words 1 

How shall we decide, whether we 
ought^ to take the lead in conversa- 
tion 1 

Why should we listen patiently 
to arguments on all sides 1 

Why should a teacher be pious ? 

Why should a teacher be affec- 
tionate 1 

What should we think of a teach- 
er, who is unwilling to be taught by 
his pupil ? 

How does a child begin to learn 
the meaning of words ? 

In order to understand a speech, 
what should we particularly con- I 
sider ? \ 

In what manner, did Pellucido \ 
speak in the senate 1 \ 

Why should we be willing some- I 
times to listen to remarks that appear \ 
frivolous 1 \ 

Whose salvation should a teacher » 



make special efforts to promote 1 

What should a pupil do, before he 
decides a point against his teacher 1 

Why is meekness desirable in a 
teacher ? 

How should we talk with chil- 
dren 1 

In what kind of company, should 
we be particularly cautious of speak- 
ing'] 

When we differ from a speaker, 
in what manner, should we express 
the difference ? 

Why should we banish from con- 
versation, all provocatives to pas- 
sions 1 

What if we know to do good, and 
do it not 1 

What is true politeness 1 

Why should a pupil attend school 
constantly 1 

Who should co-operate with teach- 
ers for the improvement of their 
pupils 1 

With what honest design, should 
we read every author 1 

Why are some ashamed to ask 
questions ? 

Five qualifications most desirable 
in a companion 1 

What branch of instruction is it 
most important for a teacher to in 
culcate ? 

What is inculcated by that scrip 
ture, which says, Charity doth not 
behave itself unseemly 1 

For what purpose, should parents, 
teachers, ministers, school commit- 
tees, &c. co-operate ? 

Golden rule for the treatment ot 
authors 1 

To what king, did some European 
merchants give some account of 
the effects of cold ? 

Mention some qualities, that ap- 
pear undesirable in a companion 1 

How does religion help a pupil's 
progress in all other branches 1 

How should a teacher promote 
freedom of thought in his pupils 1 

How do children often get wrong 
ideas of words 1 

With what, should we compare 
an author's words and phrases, in 
order to understand them 1 

Why should we converse with 
various associates ? 



OF DISPUTES. 113 



CHAPTER X. 

OF DISPUTES. 

I. Under the general head of Conversation for the Im- 
provement of the Mind, we may rank the practice of 
disputing ; that is, when two or more persons appear to 
maintain different sentiments, and defend their own, or 
oppose the other's opinion, in alternate discourse, by some 
methods 1 of argument. 

II. As these disputes often arise in good earnest, where 
the two contenders do really believe the different proposi- 
tions, which they support ; so sometimes they are appoint- 
ed, as mere trials of the students' skill in academies, or 
schools. Sometimes they are practised, and that with ap- 
parent fervor in courts of judicature, by lawyers, in order 
to gain the fees of their clients, while both sides perhaps 
are really of the same sentiment, with regard to the cause 
which is tried. 

III. In common conversation, disputes are often managed 
without any forms of regularity or order ; and they turn to 
good or evil purposes, chiefly according to the temper of 
the disputants. i They may sometimes be successful to 
search out truth, sometimes effectual to maintain truth, and 
convince the mistaken ; but at other times, a dispute is a 
mere scene of battle, in order to victory and vain triumph. 

Disputes. — Meaning of dispute ? \ What shall we think of the max- 

How are disputes generally mana- \ irn, adopted by some, " Never dis- 
ged in conversation ^ I pute about religion '!" It seems to 

According to what, do disputes { be as unscriptural, as it is unrea- 
generally produce good or evil 1 \ sonable. 

What may disputes sometimes \ Has not disputing done more harm 
enable us to search out and main- j than good 1 Probably not. 
tain 1 \ What good has ever been done by 

What Scripture authority have we I disputing 1 Most important truths 
to show, that disputing may be \ have been maintained, and spread 
right 1 Paul disputed daily in the \ far and wide, 
school of Tyrannus ; and we are { How do missionaries propagate 
exhorted to contend earnestly for the \ the gospel 1 In a great measure, by 
faith, once delivered to the saints. j disputing. 
Acts 19 : 9. Jude : 3. I Would it not be better to propa- 

How does the latter text show, \ gate the gospel by preaching 1 The 
that we should sometimes dispute 1 \ missionaries do preach ; but, their 
We must doubtless contend for the \ doctrine being disputed, they must, 
faith by argument ; and this is dis- \ like Paul, defend it by disputation, 
puting. 

10* 



114 OF DISPUTES. 

IV. There are some few general rules, which should be 
observed in all debates whatever, if we would find out truth 
by them, or convince a friend of his error, even though they 
be not managed according to any settled forms of disputa- 
tion. As there are almost as many opinions and judgments 
of things, as there are persons, so when several persons 
happen to meet, and confer together upon any subject, they 
are ready to declare their different sentiments, and support 
them by such reasonings, as they are capable of. This is 
called debating, or disputing, as is above described. 

V. When persons begin a debate, they should always 
take care, that they are agreed in some general principles 
or propositions, which either more nearly or remotely affect 
the question in hand ; for otherwise, they have no founda- 
tion or hope of convincing each other. They must have 
some common ground to stand upon, while they maintain 
the contest. 

When they find that they agree in some remote proposi- 
tions, then let them search farther, and inquire, how near 
they approach to each other's sentiments ; and whatsoever 
propositions they agree in, let these lay a foundation for 
the mutual hope of conviction. Hereby you will be pre- 
vented from running, at every turn, to some original and 
remote propositions and axioms, which practice both en- 
tangles and prolongs a dispute. As for instance, if there 
was a debate proposed between a Protestant and a Papist, 
whether there be such a place as purgatory ; let them 
remember, that they both agree in this point, that Christ 
has made satisfaction or atonement for sin, and upon this 
ground, let them both stand, while they search out the con- 
troverted doctrine of purgatory, by way of conference or 
debate. 

VI. The question should be cleared from all doubtful 
terms and needless additions ; and all things, that belong 
to the question, should be expressed in plain and intelligi- 
ble language. This is so necessary a thing, that without 
it, men will be exposed to such sort of ridiculous contests 
as was found one day between the two unlearned combat- 
ants Sartor and Sutor, who assaulted and defended the 

In what, does it seem needful, \ make, when they find, they are 

that disputants should be agreed 1 \ agreed in some points? 

Why 1 Unless they are agreed in \ From what, should the question 

eome points, there seems to be no \ be cleared 1 

foundation, upon which, te rest an \ In what kind of language, should 

argument. \ the question be stated 1 

What inquiry should disputants \ Upon what doctrine, did Sartor 



OP DISPUTES. 115 

doctrine of transubstantiation with much zeal and violence. 
But Latino happening to come into their company, and 
inquiring the subject of their dispute, asked eacli of them, 
what he meant by that long hard word transubstantiation. 
Sutor readily informed him, that he understood be wing at 
the name of Jesus. But Sartor assured him, that he meant 
nothing but bowing at the high altar. " No wonder then," 
said Latino, " that you cannot agree, when you neither un- 
derstand one another, nor the word, about which you con- 
tend." I think the whole family of the Sartors and Sutors 
would be wiser, if they avoided such kind of debates, till 
they understood the terms better. But alas ! even their 
wives carry on such conferences. The other day, one was 
heard in the street, explaining to her less learned neigh- 
bor, the meaning of metaphysical science ; and she assured 
her, that as physics were medicines for the body, so meta- 
physics was physic for the soul. Upon this, they went on 
to dispute the point, how far the divine excelled the doctor. 
VII. And hot only the sense and meaning of the words 
used in the question, should be settled and adjusted be- 
tween the disputants, but the precise point of inquiry should 
be distinctly fixed ; the question in debate should be limited 
precisely to its special extent, or declared to be taken in its 
more general sense. As for instance, If two men are con- 
tending whether civil government be of divine right or not ; 
here it must be observed, the question is not whether mon- 
archy in one man, or a republic in multitudes of the people, 
or an aristocracy in a few of the chief, is appointed of God 
as necessary ; but whether civil government in its most 
general sense, or in any form whatsoever, is derived from 
the will and appointment of God ? Again, The point of 
inquiry should be limited further. Thus, the question is 
not whether government comes from the will Of God, by 
the light of revelation ; for that is granted ; but whether it 
is derived from the will of God, by the light of reason too. 
This sort of specification or limitation of the question pre- 
vents the disputants- from wandering away from the precise 
point of inquiry. 

and Sutor dispute ? I What precise point should be 

Meaning of transubstantiation ? \ clearly settled in every dispute 1 

What did Sutor suppose, it meant? \ What evil does this specification 

What did Sartor ? | tend to prevent ? 

What did Latino say to them 1 I What if the terms could be clearly 

How long should the whole family i denned, and the precise point of in- 

of Sartors and Sutors avoid debate 1 \ quiry settled, in relation to every 



116 OF DISPUTES. 

It is this trifling humor or dishonest artifice of changing 
the question, and wandering away from the first point of 
debate, which gives endless length to disputes, and causes 
both the disputants to part without any satisfaction. And 
one chief occasion of it is this. When one of the combat- 
ants feels his cause run low and fail, and is just ready to be 
confuted and demolished, he is tempted to step aside, to 
avoid the blow, and betakes himself to a different question. 
Thus, if his adversary be not well aware of him, he begins 
to entrench himself in a new fastness, and holds out the 
siege with a new artillery of thoughts and words. It is the 
pride of man, which is the spring of this evil, and an unwil- 
lingness to yield up their own opinions, even to be over- 
come by truth itself. 

VIII. Keep this always, therefore, upon your mind, as„ 
an everlasting rule of conduct in your debates, to find out 
truth, that a resolute design, or even a warm affectation of 
victory, is the bane of all real improvement, and an effectual 
bar against the admission of the truth, which you profess to 
seek. This works with a secret but powerful and mis- 
chievous influence in every dispute, unless we are much 
upon our guard. It appears in frequent conversation ; 
every age, each sex, and each party of mankind are so fond 
of being thought in the right, that they know not how to 
renounce this unhappy prejudice, this vain love of victory. 

When truth with bright evidence, is ready to break in 
upon a disputant, and to overcome his objections and mis- 
takes, how swift and ready is the mind to engage wit and 
fancy, craft and subtilty, to cloud and perplex and puzzle 
the truth, if possible? How eager is he to throw in some 
impertinent question to divert attention from the main sub- 
ject ? How swift to take hold of some occasional word, 
thereby to lead the discourse off from the point in hand ? 
So much afraid is human nature of parting with its errors, 
and being overcome by truth. Just thus a hunted hare calls 

disputed question? Perhaps three \ such a fault, without knowing if? 
quarters of the disputes would be ? Self love, want of discernment or 
prevented. < both. 

Effect of changing the question, { What should be the grand object 
and wandering away from the first \ of disputation? 
point of dispute ? | What does the author say of the 

What is generally the occasion of 1 love of victory 1 
changing the question'? \ Why are most persons so very 

Does he intend evasion'? Pro- ? fond of victory 1 
bably not always, and perhaps, not \ To what, does he compare at- 
generally. j tempts to evade the truth ? 

What can cause him to commit j 



OP DISPUTES. 



117 



up all the shifts that nature has taught her. She treads 
back her mazes, crosses and confounds her former track, 
and uses all possible methods, to divert the scent, when she 
is in danger of being seized and taken. Let puss practise 
what nature teaches ; but would one imagine, that any 
rational being should take such pains to avoid truth, and to 
escape the improvement of his understanding ? 

IX. When you come to a dispute, in order to find out 
truth, do not presume that you are certainly possessed of it 
beforehand. Enter the debate with a sincere design of 
yielding to reason, on which side soever it appears. Use 
no subtle arts to cloud and entangle the question ; hide not 
yourself in doubtful words and phrases ; do not affect little 
shifts and subterfuges to avoid the force of an argument ; 
take a generous pleasure to espy the first rising beams of 
truth, though it be on the side of your opponent ; endeavor 
to remove the little obscurities that hang about it, and suf- 
fer and encourage it to break out into open and convincing 
light; that while your opponent, perhaps, may gain the 
better of your reasonings, yet you yourself may triumph 
over error ; and I am sure, that is a much more valuable 
acquisition and victory. 

X. Watch narrowly in every dispute, that your opponent 
does not lead you unwarily to grant some principle or pro- 
position, which will bring with it a fatal consequence, and 
lead you insensibly into his sentiment, though it be far 
astray from the truth. By this wrong step, you may be 
plunged into dangerous errors, before you are aware. 



What does he mention, that we 
should not presume, when we are 
disputing, to find out truth 1 

Over what, may we sometimes 
gain a victory, when our opponent 
gains a victory over us "J 

Why should we dispute only for 
truth 1 If we dispute for any thing 
else, we shall he in danger of pro- 
moting error, and diminishing our 
love and thirst for truth. 

Is it right to dispute in favor of an 
opinion, that we do not believe 1 
Probably not. 

Why 1 We can hardly expect to 
promote truth by advocating error. 
— Meaning of advocate 1 

By what arguments, should we 
defend truth 1 Only such, as we 
consider sound. 

Why not by others ? It is an at- 
tempt to convince others by argu- 



ments, that do not convince our- 
selves. 

To what wicked traffic, may it be 
compared 1 Passing counterfeit mon- 
ey, to promote a good object. 

What caution does Watts give, 
with regard to concession in dis- 
putes 'i 

When is this caution scarcely 
needful? When our opponent al- 
lows us to retract any concession we 
have made. 

Why should this privilege be al- 
lowed on both sides ? All are liable 
to make false concessions. 

Who seem the most liable to make 
false concessions ? Those who are 
most candid. 

What are we bound to do, when 
we retract a concession ? To answer 
the arguments, that led us to make 
it. 



118 OF DISPUTES. 

Polonides in free conversation, led Incauto to agree with 
him in this proposition, that the blessed God has too much 
justice, in any case to punish any being 1 , who is in itself in- 
nocent, till he not only allowed it with an unthinking alac- 
rity, but asserted it in most universal and unguarded terms. 
A little after Polonides came in discourse, to commend the 
virtues, the innocence and the piety of our blessed Savior ; 
and thence inferred, it was impossible that God should ever 
punish so holy a person, who was never guilty of any crime. 
Then Incauto espied the snare, and found himself robbed 
and defrauded of the great doctrine of the atonement by 
the death of Christ ; upon which he had placed his immor- 
tal hopes according to the gospel. This taught him to be- 
think himself, what a dangerous concession he had made in 
so universal a manner, that God would never punish any 
being who was innocent, and he saw it needful to recal his 
words, or to explain them better, by adding this reflection 
or limitation, namely, Unless this innocent being were some 
way involved in another's sin, or stood as a voluntary surety 
for the guilty. By this limitation, he secured the great and 
blessed doctrine of the sacrifice of Christ for the sins of 
men, and learnt to be more cautious in his concessions for 
time to come. 

Two months ago Fatalio had almost tempted his friend 
Fidens to leave off prayer, and to abandon his dependence 
on the providence of God in the common affairs of life, by 
obtaining of him a concession of the like kind. " Is it not 
evident to reason," says Fatalio, " that God's immense 
scheme of transactions in the universe, was contrived and 
determined long before you and I were born ? Can you 
imagine, my dear Fidens, that the blessed God changes his 
original contrivances, and makes new interruptions in the 
course of them so often, as you and I want his aid, to pre- 
vent the little accidents of life, or to guard us from them ? 
Can you suffer yourself to be persuaded, that the great 
Creator of this world takes care to support a bridge, which 
was quite rotten, and to make it stand firm a few minutes 
longer, till you had rode over it ? Or will he uphold a fall- 
ing tower, while we two are passing by it, that such worms 
as you and I, may escape the ruin ? 

What doctrine did Polonides al- { suade Fidens to omit? 
most lead Incauto to renounce 1 ] How may the propriety of prayer 
—How 1 ? — Meaning of atonement 1 j be vindicated against the objection 

How did Incauto secure the doc- j of Fatalio? By supposing, that God 
trine? { had respect to the prayer, in his 

What duty did Fatalio almost per- \ eternal arrangements. 



OF DISPUTES. 119 

But you say, you prayed for his protection in the morn- 
ing- ; and he certainly hears prayer. I grant, he knows it. 
But are you so fond and weak, as to suppose, that the uni- 
versal Lord of all had such a regard to a word or two of 
your breath, as to make alterations in his own eternal 
scheme upon that account ? Nor is there any other way, 
whereby his providence can preserve you in answer to 
prayer, but by creating such perpetual interruptions and 
changes in his own conduct according to your daily be- 
havior." 

" I acknowledge," says Fidens, " there is no other way 
to secure the doctrine of divine providence in all these 
common affairs ; and therefore, I begin to doubt, whether 
God does or ever will exert himself so particularly in our 
little concerns." 

Have a care, good Fidens, that you yield not too far. 
Take heed, lest you have granted too much to Fatalio. 
Pray let me ask of you, Could not the great God, who 
grasps and surveys all future and distant things in one sin- 
gle view, could not he from the beginning, foresee your 
morning prayer, for his protection, and appoint all second 
causes to concur for the support of that crazy bridge, or to 
make that old tower stand firm, till you had escaped the 
danger ? Or could not he cause all the mediums to work, 
so as to make it fall before you come near it ? Can he not 
appoint all his own transactions in the universe, and every 
event in the natural world, in a way of perfect correspond- 
ence, with his own fore-knowledge of all the events, actions 
and appearances of the moral world in every part of it ? 
Can he not direct every thing in nature, which is but his 
servant, to act in perfect agreement with his eternal pre- 
science of our sins, or of our piety ? And hereby all the 
glory of providence, and our necessary dependence upon it 
by faith and prayer, are as well secured, as if he interposed 
to alter his own scheme every moment. 

Let me ask again, Did not he in his own counsels or 
decrees appoint thunders and lightnings and earthquakes, 
to burn up and destroy Sodom and Gomorrah, and turn 
them into a dead sea, just at the time, when the iniquities 
of those cities were raised to their supreme height ? Did 
he not ordain the fountains of the deep to be broken up, 
and overwhelming rains to fall from heaven, just when a 
guilty world deserved to be drowned ; while he took care 
of the security of righteous Noah, by an ark, which should 
float upon that very deluge of waters ? Thus, he can pun- 



120 OF DISPUTES. 

ish the criminal, when he pleases, and reward the devout 
worshipper in the proper season, by his original and eternal 
schemes of appointment, as well as if he interposed every 
moment anew. Take heed, Fidens, that you be not tempt- 
ed away by such sophisms of Fatalio, to withhold prayer 
from God, and to renounce your faith in his providence. 

Remember this short and plain caution of the subtle 
errors of men. Let a snake but once thrust in his head at 
some small unguarded fold of your garment ; and he will 
insensibly and unavoidably wind his whole body into your 
bosom, and give you a pernicious wound. 

XI. On the other hand, when you have found your op- 
ponent make any such concession as may turn to your real 
advantage in maintaining the truth, be wise and watchful 
to observe it, and make a happy improvement of it. Rhap- 
sodus has taken a great deal of pains to detract from the 
honor of Christianity, by sly insinuations, that the sacred 
writers are perpetually promoting virtue and piety by 
promises and threatenings ; whereas, neither the fear of 
future punishment, nor the hope of future reward can pos- 
sibly be called good affections, or such as are the acknowl- 
edged springs and sources of all actions truly good. He 
adds further, that this fear or this hope cannot consist in 
reality with virtue or goodness, if it either stands as essen- 
tial to any moral performance, or as a considerable motive 
to any good action. Thus he would fain lead Christians to 
be ashamed of the gospel of Christ, because of its future 
and eternal promises and threatenings, as being incon- 
sistent with his notion of virtue ; for he supposes, virtue 
should be so beloved and practised for the sake of its own 
beauty and loveliness, that all other motives arising from 
rewards or punishments, fear or hope, do really take away 
just so much from the very nature of virtue, as their in- 
fluence reaches to ; and that no part of those good practices 
are really valuable, but what arises from the mere love of 
virtue itself, without any regard to punishment or reward. 

But observe in two pages afterwards he grants, that this 
principle of fear of future punishment, and hope of future 

What if your opponent makes { How may fears and hopes be a 
some important concession ? { great security to virtue ? They may 

What objection did Rhapsodus \ prevent its being swept away by 
make to the Bible 1 \ some violent temptation. 

Why would Rhapsodus have vir- I What seems to be a complete 
tue practised 1 j answer to Rhapsodus 1 That virtue 

What concession does Rhapsodus \ is just as mercenary, when practised 
afterwards make 1 f for present satisfaction, as for future. 



OF DISPUTES. 121 

reward, how mercenary and servile soever it may be ac- 
counted, is yet in many circumstances, a great advantage, 
security and support to virtue ; especially where there is 
danger of the violence of rage or lust, or any counterwork- 
ing passion to control and overcome the good affections of 
the mind. 

Now the rule and the practice of Christianity, or the 
gospel, as it is closely connected with future rewards and 
punishments, may be well supported by this concession. 
Pray, Rhapsodus, tell me, if every man in this present life, 
by the violence of some counter- working passion, may not 
have his good affections to virtue controlled or overcome ? 
May not therefore his eternal fears and hopes be a great 
advantage, security, and support to virtue in so dangerous 
a state and situation, as our journey through this world to- 
wards a better? And this is all, that the defence of 
Christianity necessarily requires. 

And yet further, let me ask our Rhapsodist, If you have 
nothing else, Sir, but the beauty and excellency, and love- 
liness of virtue to preach and flourish upon before such 
sorry and degenerate creatures, as the bulk of mankind are, 
and you have no future rewards or punishments, with which 
to address their hopes and fears, how many of these vicious 
wretches will you ever reclaim from all their varieties of 
profaneness, intemperance and madness ? How many have 
you ever actually reclaimed by this smooth, soft method, 
and these fine words ? What has all that reasoning and 
rhetoric done, which have been displayed by your pre- 
decessors the Heathen moralists, upon this excellency and 
beauty of virtue ? What has it been able to do towards 
the reforming of a sinful world ? Perhaps now and then a 
man of better natural mould has been a little refined, and 
perhaps also there may have been here and there a man 
restrained or recovered from injustice and knavery, from 
drunkenness and lewdness, and vile debaucheries, by this 
fair reasoning and philosophy. But have the passions of 
revenge and envy, of ambition and pride, and the inward 
secret vices of the mind been mortified merely by this phi- 
losophical language ? Have any of these men been made 
new creatures, men of real piety and love to, God ? 

Go, dress up all the virtues of human nature in all the 
beauties of your oratory, and declaim aloud among the 
looser herds of mankind, on the praise of social virtue, and 

What success have philosophers had, in preaching the beauty of virtue ? 
11 



122 OF DISPUTES. 

the amiable qualities of goodness, till your heart or your 
lungs ache, and you will ever find, as your Heathen fathers 
have done before, that the wild passions and appetites of 
men are too violent to be restrained by such mild and silken 
language. You may as well build up a fence of straw and 
feathers, to resist a cannon-ball, or try to quench a flaming 
grenado with a shell of fair water, as hope to succeed in 
these attempts. But an eternal heaven and an eternal hell 
carry divine force and power with them. This doctrine 
from the mouth of Christian preachers has begun the re- 
formation of multitudes. This gospel has recovered thou- 
sands among the nations from iniquity and death. They 
have been awakened by these awful scenes to begin reli- 
gion ; and afterwards their virtue has improved into supe- 
rior and more refined principles and habits by divine grace, 
and risen to high and eminent degrees, though not to a con- 
summate state. The blessed God knows human nature 
much better than Rhapsodus, and has throughout his Avord 
appointed a more proper and more effectual method of ad- 
dress to it, by the passions of hope and fear, by punishments 
and rewards. 

If you read on four pages further in these writings, you 
will find, the author makes another concession. He allows, 
that the master of a family, using proper rewards, and 
gentle punishments toward his children, teaches them good- 
ness, and by this help, instructs them in a virtue, which 
afterwards they practise upon other grounds, and without 
thinking of a penalty or a bribe ; and this, says he, is what 
we call a liberal education and a liberal service. 

This new concession of that author may also be very 
happily improved in favor of Christianity. What are the 
best of men in this life ? They are by no means perfect in 
virtue. We are all but children here under the great Master 
of the family; and he is pleased by hopes and fears, by 
mercies and. corrections, to instruct us in virtue, and to con- 
duct us onward towards the sublimer and more perfect prac- 
tice of it in the future world, where it will be performed, as 
in his own language, perhaps without thinking of penalties 
and bribes. And since he has allowed, that this conduct 
may be called " a liberal education, and a liberal service," 
let Christianity, then, be indulged the title of a "liberal 

Effect of preaching eternal re- \ upon his own principle, and may 

wards and punishments 1 \ not apply to a person of different 

What is a personal argument 1 \ principles. 

One, that is addressed to a person, \ 



OF DISPUTES. V23 

education" also ; and it is admirably fitted for such frail and 
sinful creatures, while they are training up toward the 
sublimer virtues of the heavenly state. 

XII. When you are engaged in a dispute with a person 
of very different principles from yourself, and you can find 
any ready way to- prevail with him to embrace the truth by 
principles, which you both freely acknowledge, you may 
fairly make use of his own principles to shew him his mis- 
take, and thus convince or silence him, from his own con- 
cessions. 

If your opponent should be a Stoic philosopher, or a Jew, 
you may pursue your argument in defence of some Chris- 
tian doctrine or duty against such a disputant, by axioms or 
laws, borrowed either from Zeno or Moses. And though 
you do not enter into the inquiry, how many of the laws of 
JVloses are abrogated, or Avhether Zeno was right or wrong 
in his philosophy ; yet if from the principles and concession 
of your opponent, you can support your argument for the 
gospel of Christ, this has been always counted a fair treat- 
ment of an adversary, and it is called Argumentum ad 
hominem, or Ratio ex concessis. Paul sometimes makes use 
of this sort of disputation, when he talks with Jews or 
Heathen philosophers ; and at least, he silences if not con- 
vinces them ; which is sometimes necessary to be done 
against an obstinate and clamorous adversary, that just 
honor may be paid to truths, which he knew were divine, 
and that the only true doctrine of salvation might be con- 
firmed and propagated among sinful and dying men. 

XIII. Yet great care must be taken, lest your debates 
break in upon your passions, and awaken them to take part 
in the controversy. When the opponent pushes hard, and 
gives just and mortal wounds to our own opinion, our pas- 
sions are very apt to feel the strokes, and to rise in resent- 
ment and defence. Self is so mingled with the sentiments, 
which we have chosen, and has such a tender feeling of all 
the opposition, which is made to them, that personal Drawls 
are very ready to come in as seconds, to succeed and finish 

Latin name? \ Excellence of personal argument ? 

Literal meaning of argumentum ad \ It is perhaps the best weapon, that 
hominem 1 An argument to a man. X logic can furnish, for the destruction 

Meaning of ratio ex concessis 1 A \ of error, 
reason from what is conceded. \ If our opponent presses lis very 

When may we use personal argu- \ hard with argument, what is likely 
ments ] Whenever there is oppor- \ to be the effect, upon our passions 1 
tunity, especially when our opponent \ What will be likely to be the ef- 
appears inconsistent with himself. \ feet, if our bad passions are engaged ? 



124 OF DISPUTES. 

the dispute of opinions. Then noise and clamor and folly 
appear in all their shapes, and chase reason and truth out 
of sight. 

How unhappy is the case of frail and wretched mankind, 
in this dark or dusky state of strong passion and glimmer- 
ing reason ? How ready are we, when our passions are 
engaged in the dispute, to consider more, what loads of 
nonsense and reproach we can lay upon our opponent, than 
what reason and truth require in the controversy itself. 
Dismal are the consequences mankind are too often in- 
volved in by this evil principle. It is this common and dan- 
gerous practice, that carries the heart aside from all that is 
fair and honest in our search after truth, or the propagation 
of it in the world. One would wish, that none of the Chris- 
tian fathers had been guilty of such follies as these. But 
Jerome fairly confesses this evil principle in his apology 
for himself to Pammachius, " that he had not so much re- 
garded what was exactly to be spoken in the controversy 
he had in his hand, as what was fit to lay a load on Jo- 
vinian." And indeed, I fear this was the vile custom of 
many writers even in the church-affairs of those times. 
But it will be a double scandal upon us in our more en- 
lighted age, if we allow ourselves in a conduct so criminal 
and dishonest. Happy souls, who keep such a sacred 
dominion over their inferior and animal powers, and all the 
influences of pride, and secular interest, that the sensitive 
tumults, or these vicious influences, never rise to disturb 
the superior and better operations of the reasoning mind ! 

XIV. These general directions are necessary, or at least 
useful, in all debates whatsoever, whether they arise in 
occasional conversation, or are appointed at any certain 
time or place ; whether they are managed with or without 
any formal rules to govern them. But there are three sorts 
of disputation, in which there are some forms and orders 
observed, and which are distinguished by these three names, 
namely, Socratic, Forensic, and Academic, that is, the dis- 
putes of the schools. 

Concerning each of these it may not be improper to dis- 
course a little, and give a few particular directions or re- 
marks about them. 

Confession of St. Jerome upon \ What were those called, who 

this point ? { wrote in Greek 1 Greek fathers. 

Who was St. Jerome ? The most \ Meaning of Christian fathers ? Dis- 

learned of the Latin fathers. \ tinguished early writers, who were 

Who were the Latin fathers 1 \ professed Christians. 

Those Christian fathers, who wrote j When did Jerome live ? In the 

in Latin. $ 4th and 5th centuries. 



SOCRATICAL DISPUTATION. 125 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE SOCRATIC WAY OF DISPUTATION. 

I. This method of dispute derives its name from So- 
crates, by whom it was practised, and by other philosophers 
in his age, long before Aristotle invented the particular 
forms of syllogism in mood and figure, which are now used 
in scholastic disputations. 

II. The Socratic way is managed by questions and 
answers in such a manner as this, namely, If I would lead a 
person into the belief of a heaven or hell, or a future state 
of rewards and punishments, I might begin in some such 
manner of inquiry, as the following, and suppose the most 
obvious and easy answers. 

Q. Does not God govern the world? A. Surely, he 
that made it governs it. 

Q. Is not God both a good and a righteous governor ? 
A. Both these characters doubtless belong to him. 

Q. What is the true notion of a good and righteous 
governor ? A. That he punishes the wicked, and rewards 
the good. 

Q. Are the good always rewarded in this life ? A. No, 
surely ; for many virtuous men are miserable here, and 
greatly afflicted. 

Q. Are the wicked always punished in this life ? A. No, 
certainly ; for many of them live without sorrow, and some 
of the vilest of men are often raised to great riches and 
honor. Q. Wherein then does God make it appear, that 
he is good and righteous ? A. I own, there is but little 
appearance of it on earth. 

Q. Will there be not a time, then, when the tables will 
be turned, and the scene of things changed, since God 
governs mankind righteously ? A. Doubtless there must 

Socratic Disputation. — From { At what age 1 70 — How long ago? 
whom, does this method derive its \ When was he born 1 
name 1 | What more do you know about 

Who was Socrates 1 The most { Socrates'? 
distinguished Grecian philosopher. 5 In what manner, is the Socratic 

Of what city 1 Athens. \ method managed 1 

When did he die ? B. C. 400. { 

11* 



126 SOCRATICAL DISPUTATION. 

be a proper time, wherein God will make that goodness ana 
that righteousness to appear. 

Q. If this be not before their death, how can it be done ? 
A. I can think of no other way, but by supposing man to 
have some existence after this life. 

Q. Are you not convinced, then, that there must be a 
state of reward and punishment after death ? A. Yes, sure- 
ly, I now see plainly, that the goodness and righteousness 
of God, as governor of the world, necessarily require it. 

III. Now the advantages of this method are very con- 
siderable. 

1. It represents the form of a dialogue or common con- 
versation, which is a much more easy, more pleasant and a 
more sprightly way of instruction, and more fit to excite 
the attention and sharpen the penetration of the learner, 
than solitary reading, or silent attention to a lecture. Man 
being a sociable creature, delights more in conversation, 
and learns better this way, if it could always be wisely and 
happily practised. 

2. This method has something very obliging in it, and 
carries a very humble and condescending air, when he that 
instructs seems to be the inquirer, and seeks information 
from him who learns. 

3. It leads the learner into the knowledge of truth, as it 
were by his own invention ; which is a very pleasing thing 
to human nature ; and by questions pertinently and arti- 
ficially proposed, it does as effectually draw him on to dis- 
cover his own mistakes, which he is much more easily 
persuaded to relinquish, when he seems to have discovered 
them himself. 

4. It is managed in a great measure in the form of the 
most easy reasoning, always arising from something as- 
serted or known in the foregoing answer, and so proceed- 
First class of advantages, men- X That each party, should he allowed 

tioned by Watts 1 \ to ask as many questions as the 

Second class ^ \ other. 

How does it lead the learner, into | When one answers the questions 
the knowledge of truth 1 \ of his opponent, what is the exer- 

For. what, does the Socratic meth- \ cise often called ? Using the labor- 
od give a teacher, peculiar advan- \ ing oar. 

tages 1 To adapt his ideas and { How much ought each to be will- 
words to the capacities of his pupils. I ing to use the laboring oar? 

When may this method, become { Why is it so called 1 Because it 
very unreasonable and oppressive! I is generally much easier to ask ques- 
When one party insists upon asking \ tions, than to answer them. 
all the questions, and answering j Who can ask questions, that no 
none. \ philosopher can answer? A little 

Grand rule upon this method ! } child 



SOCRATICAL DISPUTATION. 127 

irig to inquire something unknown in the following ques- 
tion, which again makes way for the next answer. Now 
such an exercise is very alluring and entertaining to the 
learner, while his own reasoning powers are all along em- 
ployed, and that without labor or difficulty ; because the 
querist finds out and proposes all the- intermediate ideas or 
middle terms. 

IV. There is a method very near akin to this, which has 
much obtained of late, namely, writing controversies by 
questions only, or confirming or refuting any position, or 
persuading to, or dehorting from, any practice, by the mere 
proposal of queries. The answer to each question is sup- 
posed to be so plain and so necessary, that it is not expres- 
sed ; because the query itself carries a convincing argument 
in it, and seems to determine, what the answer must be. 

V. If Christian catechisms could be framed in the man- 
ner of a Socratic dispute, by question and answer, it would 
wonderfully enlighten the' minds cf children, and it would 
improve their intellectual and reasoning powers, at the same 
time, that it would lead them into the knowledge of reli- 
gion. It is upon one account, well suited to the capacity 
of children ; for the questions may be pretty numerous, and 
the querest must not proceed too swiftly toward the deter- 
mination of his point proposed, that he may with more ease, 
with brighter evidence, and with surer success, draw the 
learner on to assent to those principles step by step, from 
whence the final conclusion will naturally arise. The only 
inconvenience would be this, that if children were to reason 
out all their way entirely into the knowledge of every part 
of their religion, it would draw common catechisms into too 
large a volume for their leisure, attention or memory. 

Yet those who explain their catechisms to them may, by 
due application and forethought, instruct them in this man- 
ner. 

Method of instruction, nearly al- \ Why should the querist be cau- 
lied to the Socratic ? \ tious not to proceed too rapidly 1 

Why are not the answers given 1 \ What would be the inconvenience 
What effect does Watts think a \ of a catechism, consisting of a vast 
catechism upon the Socratic method j number of questions and answers ? 
might have upon children 1 | 



128 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



Miscellaneous Questions. No. 4. 



In what language, should dis- 
putants 3tate the question of debate ? 

According to what, do disputes 
generally produce good or evil ? 

Whom does Watts represent as 
disputing upon transubtantiation ? 

Of what, shall we be in danger, 
if we dispute for any think but 
truth ? 

Who was the most distinguished 
Grecian philosopher 1 

What method of disputation seems 
the most kind and conciliating 1 

What good has ever been done by 
disputing 1 

Where did Paul dispute daily 1 

How long should Sartors and Su- 
tors avoid debate ? 

Why should we not attempt to 
defend truth by unsound arguments? 

What is the Socratic method of 
disputation 1 

What class of ministers propagate 
the gospel in a great measure by dis- 
putation ? 

Upon what, did Sartor and Sutor 
dispute 1 

How often did Paul dispute in the 
school of Tyrannus 1 

What word signifies the supposed 
change of bread and wine into the 
body and blood of Christ 1 

What method of disputation is 
conducted principally by questions ? 

Why is it needful for missiona- 
ries to dispute upon religion ? 

What precise point should be 
clearly settled in every dispute ? 

For what faith, should Christians 
earnestly contend ? 

What precise point should be 
clearly settled in every dispute 1 

What name is given to an argu- 



i ment, that is addressed to a person 

\ on his own principles 1 

\ When may the Socratic method 

j become oppressive ? 

| Over what may we sometimes 

I gain a victory, when our opponent 

i gains a victory over us 1 

When the doctrines of a missiona- 
ry are denied, how should he gen- 
erally defend them ? 

What should be the grand object 
of disputation 1 

Who were the Latin fathers 1 

Grand rule to be used in the So- 
cratic method of reasoning 1 

What may disputes sometimes 
enable us to search out and main- 
tain ? 

What if our opponent makes some 
important concession 1 

What maxim relating to religion 
seems to be as unscriptural, as it is 
unreasonable 1 

What does Watts compare to the 
flight of a hunted hare ? 

Who were the Greek fathers ? 

In what school, did Paul dispute 
daily 1 

What scripture authority have we 
for disputing ? 

Why should we dispute only for 
truth 1 

What good has ever been done by 
disputing? 

Most learned of the Latin fathers ? 

What shall we think of the max- 
im never to dispute about religion ? 

What effect have philosophers had 
in preaching the beauty of virtue 1 

Why is k needful, that disputants 
should be agreed in some points 1 

Effect of changing the question in 
a dispute ? 



It is thought best to omit the two next chapters, 
as Forensic and Scholastic disputations are now perhaps, 
on the whole of no use, and would probably never be prac- 
tised by one of a hundred, who may study this book. Though 
some of the instructions of these chapters are in themselves 
valuable, in relation to other disputes, perhaps most of them 
have been superseded. 



OF STUDY, OR MEDITATION. 129 

CHAPTER XIV. 

OF STUDY, OR MEDITATION. 

I. It has been proved and established in some of the 
foregoing chapters, that neither our own observations, nor 
our reading the labors of the learned, nor the attendance 
on the.best lectures of instruction, nor enjoying the bright- 
est conversation, can ever make us truly knowing and wise, 
without the labors of our reason in surveying, examining 
and judging concerning all subjects, upon the best evidence 
we can acquire. A good genius, or sagacity of thought, a 
happy judgment, a capacious memory, and large opportuni- 
ties of observation and converse, will do much of them- 
selves towardthe cultivation of the mind, where they are 
well improved. But where to the advantage of learned 
lectures, living instructions and well chosen books, dili- 
gence and study are superadded, this man has all human 
aids concurring, to raise him to a superior degree of wis- 
dom and knowledge. 

Under the preceding heads of discourse, it has been 
already declared, how our own meditation and reflection 
should examine, cultivate and improve all other methods 
and advantages of enriching the understanding. What re- 
mains in this chapter, is to give some further occasional 
hints, how to employ our own thoughts, what sort of sub- 
jects we should meditate on, and in what manner, we 
should regulate our studies, and how we may improve our 
judgment, so as in the most effectual and compendious way, 
to attain such knowledge, as may be most useful for every 
man in his circumstances of life, and particularly for those 
of the learned professions. 

II. The first direction for youth is this, Learn betimes 
to distinguish between words and things. Get clear and 
plain ideas of the things you are set to study. Do not con- 

What is the grand, and crowning \ What gives words, their whole 

method of gaining knowledge and \ value? Their representing other 

mental improvement 1 \ objects. 

Between what objects, should we \ What, if we do not know, what 

learn betimes to distinguish?— Mean- objects, certain- words represent? 

ing of betimes 1 \ Those words are useless to us. 

Why should we not content our- { What is implied in knowing, what 

selves with mere words ? j objects, words represent ? It is the 



130 OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 

tent yourselves with mere words and names, lest your la- 
bored improvements only amass a heap of unintelligible 
phrases, and you feed upon husks instead of kernels. This 
rule is of unknown use in every science. 

But the greatest and most common danger is in the 
sacred science of theology, where settled terms and phrases 
have been pronounced divine and orthodox, which yet have 
had no meaning. The scholastic divinity would furnish us 
with numerous instances of this folly ; and yet for many - 
ages, all truth and all heresy were determined by such 
senseless tests, and by words without ideas. Such Shib- 
boleths as these, have decided the secular fates of men ; 
and bishopricks or burning, mitres or faggots, have been 
the rewards of different persons, according as they pro- 
nounced these consecrated syllables, or not pronounced 
them. To defend them was all piety and pomp and triumph ; 
to despise them, or to doubt or deny them, was torture and 
death. A thousand thank-offerings are due to that Provi- 
dence, which has delivered our age and our nation from 
these absurd iniquities ! O that every specimen and 
shadow of this madness, in every shape, were banished 
from our schools and churches. 

III. Let not young students apply themselves to search 
out deep, dark and abstruse matters, far above their reach, 

same as knowing the meaning of? having clear ideas annexed to words.' 
the word s„ \ Meaning of annex? 

What are the two grand divisions \ Why is it peculiarly desirable, to 
of words 1 Spoken and written. \ have clear ideas upon this subject 1 

By which of the 5 senses, are \ Because these ideas relate more im- 
spoken words perceived 1 — written? \ mediately to our eternal welfare. 

What four things, most intimately \ By what tests, were all truth and 
connected together, and connected \ heresy determined, for ages 1 
with study, should be carefully dis- I What are due to Providence, for 
tinguished? Things, ideas, spoken | delivering us from such absurd ini- 
words, and written words. j quities 1 

What do written words immedi- \ What branch of literature, has i 
ately represent 1 In general, they \ been highly conducive to such de- 
immediately represent spokenwords. \ liverance ? Herrrieneutics. 

What do spoken words, immedi- I Who have been the greatest in- 
ately represent? Generally ideas; \ struments in effecting this deliver- ■ 
sometimes, things directly, without j ance? Luther and his coadjutors! 
representing ideas. \ in the Reformation. 

When we study words, of what, t Meaning of coadjut or 1 
should we endeavor to gain clear \ Who, since their day, has done 
conceptions 1 ' j the most, to promote this cause oft 

Why is it necessary, to pay very j truth, candor and holiness? Pro- 
particular attention to words, in \ bably Watts. 

pursuing our studies? We can \ Who should be especially cau- 
scarcely study without them. i tious, not to search for things above l 

In what science, is the greatest \ their reach 1 
and most common danger of not J 



OF STUDY, A!vD MEDITATION. 131 

or spend their labor in any subjects, for -which they have 
not the advantages of necessary antecedent learning or 
books or observations. Let them not be too hasty to know 
things above their present powers, nor plunge their in- 
quiries at once into the depths of knowledge, nor begin to 
study any science in the middle. This will confound, 
rather than enlighten, the understanding. Such practices 
may happen to discourage and harass the mind by an at- 
tempt above its power ; it may balk the understanding, and 
create an aversion to future diligence, and perhaps by 
despair, may forbid the pursuit of that subject for ever 
afterwards ; as a limb overstrained by lifting a weight 
above its power, may never recover its former agility and 
and vigor ; or if it does, the man may be frighted from ever 
exerting his strength again. 

IV. Nor yet let any student on the other hand frighten 
himself at every turn, with insurmountable difficulties ; nor 
imagine, that the truth is wrapt up in impenetrable dark- 
ness. These are formidable spectres, which the under- 
standing raises sometimes, to flatter its own laziness. Those 
things, which in a remote and confused view, seem very 
obscure and perplexed, may be approached by gentle and 
regular steps, and may then unfold and explain themselves 
at large to the eye. The hardest problems in geometry, 
and the most intricate schemes or diagrams may be expli- 
cated and understood step by step. Every great mathema- 
tician bears a constant witness to this observation. 

V. In learning any new thing, there should be as little 
as possible first proposed to the min d at once. That being 
understood, and fully mastered, proceed to the next ad- 
joining part yet unknown. This is a slow, but safe and 
sure way to arrive at knowledge. If the mind apply itself 
at first to easier subjects, and things near akin to "what is 
already known, and then advance to the more remote and 
knotty parts of knowledge, by slow decrees, it will be able 
in this manner, to cope with great difficulties, and prevail 
over them, with amazing and happy success. 

Mathon happened to dip into the two last chapters of a 

Where should we not begin to f Effect of such proceeding upon 
stud v any science 1 — Why? ~ I the faculties of the mind? Great 

Why does the understanding \ improvement, 
sometimes raise formidable spectres, \ in learning my new thing, how 
in the course of study ? j much should be proposed at once 1 

How may we learn very difficult ? How was Mathon affected, when 
truths 1 By proceeding systernati- \ he first attended to the latter part of 
tally, gradually, vigorously patieut- I a work on Geometry ? 
ly and perseveringly 



132 OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 

new book of geometry and mensuration. As soon as he 
saw it, and was frighted with the complicated diagrams, 
which he found there, about the frustums of cones and 
pyramids, &c. and some deep demonstrations among conic 
sections, he shut the book in despair ; and imagined none 
but a Sir Isaac Newton was ever fit to read it. But his 
tutor happily persuaded him to begin the first pages about 
lines and angles. And he found such surprising pleasure 
in three weeks time in the victories he daily obtained, that 
at last, he became one of the chief geometers of his age. 

VI. Engage not the mind in the intense pursuit of too 
many things at once ; especially such, as have no relation 
to one another. This will be ready to distract the under- 
standing, and hinder it from attaining perfection in any one 
subject of study. Such a practice gives a slight smattering 
of several sciences, without any solid and substantial knowl- 
edge of them, and without any real and valuable improve- 
ment. Though two or three sorts of study may be usefully 
carried on at once, to entertain the mind with variety, that 
it may not be over-tired with one sort of thoughts, yet a 
multitude of subjects will too much distract the attention, 
and weaken the application of the mind to any one of them. 

Where two or three sciences are pursued at the same 
time, if one of them be dry, abstracted and unpleasant, as 
logic, metaphysics, law, languages, let another be more 
entertaining and agreeable, to secure the mind from weari- 
ness. Delight should be intermingled with labor, as far as 
possible, to allure us to bear the fatigue of dry studies the 

What did Mathon finally become 1 I rendered agreeable 1 By excellent 

How '? I teaching, and excellent learning. 

Effect of pursuing too many stu- \ How far, should delight be min- 

dies at once ? j gled with study 1 — Why 1 

How many principal studies, may j What advantage may it afford, 

usually be pursued collaterally! — \ besides this allurement 1 It may 

Meaning of collaterally? i improve bodily health, and intel- 

Wliat else may be attended to, at \ lectual vigor, 

the same time 1 Reading, writing, \ How far should our studies be 

spelling and perhaps, one or two \ made amusements 1 If possible, 

subordinate branches, that require \ every study should be made an 

but little attention. j amusement, in relation to others, 

Why should more than one sort j pursued at the same time. — Mean- 

of study be carried on at once 1 j ing of amusement, as here used ? 

Why should they not be very ? That which refreshes the mind,' and 

numerous 1 5 prepares it, to attend with more 

What studies should be pursued \ vigor, to something else. 
in connection with such, as are > What effect upon many wander- 
more dry and uninteresting 1 ] I ing geniuses, has the pursuit of in- 

Can you mention some of these ? cidental themes ? 

dry studies! 1 Meaning of theme? 

How can the driest studies be \ 



OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 133 

better. Poetry, practical mathematics, history, &c. are 
generally esteemed entertaining studies, and may be hap- 
pily used for this purpose. Thus, while we relieve a dull 
and heavy hour, by some alluring employments of the mind, 
our very diversions enrich our understandings ; and our 
pleasure is turned into profit. 

VII. In the pursuit of every valuable subject of knowl- 
edge, keep the end always in your eye, and be not diverted 
from it by every petty trifle you meet with in the way. 
Some persons have such a wandering genius, that they are 
ready to pursue every incidental theme or occasional idea, till 
they have lost sight of their original subject. These are 
the men, who, when they are engaged in conversation, 
prolong their story by dwelling on every incident, and swell 
their narrative with long parentheses, till they have lost 
their first design ; like a man, who is sent in quest of some 
great treasure ; but steps aside to gather every flower he 
finds, or stands still to dig up every shining pebble he meets 
with, till the treasure is forgotten, and never found. 

VIII. Exert your care, skill and diligence about every 
subject and every question, in a just proportion to the im- 
portance of it, together with the danger and bad conse- 
quences of ignorance or error therein. Many excellent 
advantages flow from this one direction. 

1. This rule will teach you to be very careful in gaining 
some general and fundamental truths both in philosophy, 
in religion and in human life ; because they are of the 
highest moment, and conduct our thoughts with ease, into 
a thousand inferior and particular propositions. Such is 
that great principle in natural philosophy, the doctrine of 
gravitation, or mutual tendency of all bodies toward each 
other, which Sir Isaac Newton has so well established, and 
from which he has drawn the solution of a multitude of ap- 
pearances in the heavenly bodies, as well as on earth. 

Such is that golden principle of morality, which our 

How do some men most painfully i consideration, that a study is really 
prolong their stories, in conversa- { useful, without inquiring, whether 
tion 1 — Meaning of guest 1 — of peb- \ it is useful, in proportion to the at- 
ble? — of parenthesis ? \ tention paid to it; or whether ifris 

In proportion to what, should we \ more useful, than some other study, 
pursue every study ? | less attended to, or wholly neglected. 

By whom, is this rule violated 1 \ In what, will this rule teach us, 
Probably by most persons, who di- \ to be very cautious, in gaining some 
rect, what studies shall be pursued. \ fundamental truths 1 

What mistakes are often made, ? Meaning of fundamental! — oigra- 
by disregarding this rule ? Persons \ vitation ? 
often content themselves with the \ 

12 



134 OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 

blessed Lord has given us, Do that to others, which you 
think just and reasonable, that others should do to you ; 
which is almost sufficient in itself to solve all cases of con- 
science, which relate to our neighbor. 

Such are those principles in religion, that a rational crea- 
ture is accountable to his Maker for all his actions ; that 
the soul of man is immortal ; that there is a future state of 
happiness and of misery, depending on our behavior in the 
present life, on which all our religious practices are built 
or supported. 

We should be very critical in examining all propositions, 
that pretend to this honor of being general principles. We 
should not, without just evidence, admit into this rank mere 
matters of common fame, or commonly received opinions ; 
no, nor the general determinations of the learned, nor the 
established articles of any church or nation, &c. for there 
are many learned presumptions, many synodical and na- 
tional mistakes, many established falsehoods, as well as 
many vulgar errors, wherein multitudes of men have fol- 
io Aved one another for whole ages almost blindfold. It is 
of great importance for every man to be careful, that these 
general principles are just and true. For one error may 
lead us into thousands, which will naturally follow, if once 
a leading fasehood be admitted. 

2. This rule will direct us to be more careful about prac- 
tical points, than mere speculations ; since they are com- 
monly of much greater use and consequence. Therefore, 
the speculations of algebra, the doctrine of infinites, and 
the quadrature of curves in mathematical learning, together 
with all the train of theorems in natural philosophy, should 
by no means intrench upon our studies of morality and 
virtue. Even in the science of divinity itself, the sublimest 
speculations of it are not of that worth and value, as the 
rules of duty toward God and toward man. 

3. In matters of practice, we should be most careful to 
fix our end right, and wisely determine the scope, at which 

What are some of the fundamen- I nection with practice. 
tal principles in religion 1 \ What speculations are most im- 

What propositions should we be I portant ? Those, which are most 
very critical in examining ? \ intimately connected with the most 

Into how many smaller errors, \ important practice, 
may one great error lead us ? 5 Grand negative maxim for regu- 

What points are more important, \ latin g our studies'? Never neglect 
than mere speculations 1 j a more important, for the sake of 

Meaning of speculation! \ pursuing a less important. 

Why are speculations useful 1 \ What should we be most caref il 
Principally on account of their con- } to fix right, in matters of practice 1 



OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 135 

we aim ; because that is to direct us in the choice and use 
of all the means to attain it. If our end be wrong, all our 
labor in the means will be vain, or perhaps so much the 
more pernicious, as they are better suited to attain that 
mistaken end. If mere sensible pleasure or human gran- 
deur or wealth be our chief end, we shall choose means 
contrary to piety and virtue, and proceed apace toward real 
misery. 

4. This rule will engage our best powers and deepest 
attention in the affairs of religion, and things that relate to 
a future world. For those propositions, which extend only 
to the interest of the present life, are but of small impor- 
tance, when compared with those, that have influence upon 
our everlasting concernments. 

5. And even in the affairs of religion, if we walk by the 
conduct of this rule, we shall be much more laborious in 
our inquiries into the necessary and fundamental articles 
of faith and practice, than the lesser appendices of Chris- 
tianity. The great doctrines of repentance toward God, 
faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, with love to men, and uni- 
versal holiness, will employ our best and brightest hours 
and meditations ; while the mint, anise and cummin, the 
gestures and vestures and fringes of religion, will be re- 
garded no further, than they have a plain and evident con- 
nection with faith and love, with holiness and peace. 

6. This rule will make us solicitous not only to avoid 
such errors, whose influence will spread wide into the 
whole scheme of our own knowledge and practice, but such 
mistakes also, whose influence would be yet more exten- 
sive and injurious to others, as well as to ourselves ; per- 
haps to many persons or many families, to a whole church, 
a town, a country or a kingdom. Upon this account, per- 
sons, who are called to instruct others, who are raised to 
any eminence either in church or state, ought to be careful 
in settling their principles in matters relating to the civil, 
the moral or the religious life, lest a mistake of theirs should 

What if our end be wrong ? j who find that posture most con- 

What if our end be mere sensual \ ducive to devotion, and especially 

enjoyment ? I those, who think it most agreeable 

Irt what affairs, should our best i to scripture, 

powers and deepest attention be \ Against what mistakes, should we 

engaged 1 \ most earnestly guard 1 

To what doctrines of religion, j Why should we not indulge an 

should we pay most attention ? ; undue fondness for any study ? It 

How far should the circumstan- I will tend to make us disrelish, car 

tials of religion be regarded 1 \ pervert others. 

Who should pray kneeling ? Those { 



136 OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 

diffuse wide mischief, should draw along with it, most per- 
nicious consequences, and perhaps extend to following 
generations. 

These are some of the advantages, which arise from the 
eighth rule, namely, pursue every inquiry and study in pro- 
portion to its real value and importance. 

IX. Have a care, lest some beloved notion, or some 
darling science so far prevail over your mind, as to give a 
sovereign tincture to all your other studies, and discolor all 
your ideas ; like a person in the jaundice, who spreads a 
yellow scene with his eyes over all the objects which he 
meets. I have known a man of peculiar skill in music, and 
much devoted to that science, who found out a great resem- 
blance of the Athanasian doctrine of the trinity in every 
single note ; and he thought it carried something of argu- 
ment in it to prove that doctrine. I have read of another, 
who accommodated the seven days of the first week of 
creation to the seven notes of music ; and thus the whole 
creation became harmonious.* 

Under this influence, derived from mathematical studies, 
some have been tempted to cast all their logical, their meta- 
physical, and their theological and moral learning into the 
method of mathematicians, and bring every thing relating 
to those abstracted or those practical sciences, under theo- 
rems, problems, postulates, scholiums, corollaries, &c. 
whereas the matter ought always to direct the method. 
For all subjects or matters of thought cannot be moulded 
or forced to one form. Neither the rules for the conduct 
of the understanding, nor the doctrines nor duties of reli- 
gion and virtue, can be exhibited naturally in figures and 
diagrams. Things are to be considered as they are in 
themselves. Their nature is inflexible, and their natural 
relations unalterable. And therefore, in order to conceive 
them aright, we must bring our understandings to things, 
and not pretend to bend and strain things to comport with 
our fancies and forms. 

X. Suffer not any beloved study to prejudice your mind 
so far in favor of it, as to despise all other learning. This 
is a fault of some little souls, who have got a smattering of 
astronomy, chemistry, metaphysics, history, &c. and for 
want of a due acquaintance with other sciences, make a 
scoff at them all, in comparison with their favorite science. 

* Perhaps the author did not consider, that the " seven notes of music," 
if sounded together, will produce several discords : nor, that sounded sep- 
arately, they will produce at best, only a melody.— Editor. 



OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 137 

Their understandings are hereby cooped up in narrow 
bounds, so that they never look abroad into otner provinces 
of the intellectual world, which are more beautiful perhaps, 
and more fruitful than their own. If they would search a 
little into other sciences, they might not only find treasures 
of new knowledge, but might be furnished also with rich 
hints of thought, and glorious assistances, to cultivate that 
very province, to which they have confined themselves. 

Here I would always give some grains of allowance to 
the sacred science of theology, which is incomparably su- 
perior to all the rest, as it teaches us the knowledge of God, 
and the way to his eternal favor. This is that noble study, 
which is every man's duty ; and every one who can be 
called a rational creature is capable of it. This is that 
science, which would truly enlarge the minds of men, were 
it studied with that freedom, that unbiassed love of truth, 
and that sacred charity, which it teaches ; and if it were 
not made, contrary to its own nature, the occasion of strife, 
faction, malignity, a narrow spirit, and unreasonable im- 
positions on the mind and practice. Let this, therefore, 
stand always chief. 

XL Let every particular study have due and proper time 
assigned it, and let not a favorite science prevail with you 
to lay out such hours upon it, as ought to be employed upon 
the more necessary and more important affairs or studies 
of your profession. When you have, according to the best 
of your discretion, and according to the circumstances of 
your life, fixed proper hours for particular studies, endeavor 
to keep those rules ; not indeed with a superstitious pre- 
ciseness, but with some good degrees of a regular constancy. 
Order and method in a course of study, save much time, 
and make large improvements. Such a fixation of certain 
hours will have a happy influence to secure you from trifling 
and wasting away your minutes in impertinence. 

XII. Do not apply yourself to any one study at one time 
longer than the mind is capable of giving a close attention 

Why is the science of theology i mistake, and doubly injurious. — 
superior to all the rest 1 \ How doubly 1 

What effect would this science I Advantages of alloting particular 
have upon mental improvement, if J times to particular studies 1 It saves 
properly pursued .' | much time, and is more likely to 

What has theology occasioned, j secure due proportion of time to 
contrary to its own nature ? I each study. 

What shall we think of neglecting { Beyond what point, should we not 
theology, for studies of little prac- ] apply ourselves, at one time 1— 
tical importance, in order to improve j Why 1 
the mind ? It seems to be a vast > 

12* 



138 OP STUDY, OR MEDITATION. 

to it, without weariness or wandering 1 . Do not over-fatigue 
the spirits at any time, lest the mind be seized with a las- 
situde, and thereby be tempted to nauseate a particular sub- 
ject, before you have finished it. 

XIII. In the beginning of your application to any new 
subject, be not too uneasy under present difficulties, that 
occur, nor too importunate and impatient for answers and 
solutions to any questions that arise. Perhaps a little more 
study, a little further acquaintance with the subject, a little 
time and experience, will solve those difficulties, untie the 
knot, and make your doubts vanish. If you are under the 
instruction of a tutor, he can inform you, that your inquiries 
are perhaps too early, and that you have not yet learnt those 
principles, upon which the solution of such a difficulty de- 
pends. 

XIV. Do not expect to arrive at certainty in every sub- 
ject, which you pursue. There are a hundred things, where- 
in we mortals, in this dark and imperfect state, must be con- 
tent with probability, where our best light and reasonings 
will reach no further. We must balance arguments, as 
justly as we can, and where we cannot find weight enough 
on either side to determine the scale with sovereign force 
and assurance, we must content ourselves perhaps with a 
small preponderation. This will give us a probable opin- 
ion ; and those probabilities are sufficient for the daily 
determination of a thousand actions in human life, and 
many times even in matters of religion. 

It is admirably well expressed by a late writer, " When 
there is great strength of argument set before us, if we will 
refuse to do what appears most fit for us, until every little 
objection is removed, we shall never take one wise resolu- 
tion, as long as we live." 

Suppose I had been honestly and long searching, what 
religion I should choose, and yet I could not find, that the 
arguments in defence of Christianity arose to complete 
certainty ; but went only so far as to give me a probable 
evidence of the truth of it ; though many difficulties still 
remained, yet I should think myself obliged to receive and 

Eractise that religion. For the God of nature and reason 
as bound us to assent and act according to the best evi- 
^ — ~ — . — . — _ — , . _ 

Against what uncomfortable feel- | What may such probabilities de- 
ings, should we guard, at the com- ] termine 1 
mencernent of a study ? I What if we refuse to do what ap- 

With what, should we content \ pears most fit, till every objection is 
ourselves, when we cannot gain I removed ? 
certainty ? \ 



OF STUDY, OR MEDITATION. 139 

dence we have, even though it be not absolute and com- 
plete ; and as he is our supreme judge, his abounding good- 
ness and equity will approve and acquit the man, whose 
conscience honestly and willingly seeks the best light, and 
obeys it, as far as he can discover it. 

But in matters of great importance in religion, let him 
join all due diligence with earnest and humble prayer for 
divine aid in his inquiries ; such prayer and such diligence 
as eternal concerns require, and such, as he may plead with 
courage before the Judge of all. 

XV. Endeavor to apply every speculative study, as far 
as possible, to some practical use, that both yourself and 
others may be the better for it. Inquiries even in natural 
philosophy should not be mere amusements, and much less 
in the affairs of religion. Researches into the springs of 
natural bodies and their motions should lead men to invent 
happy methods for the ease and convenience of human 
life ; or at least, they should be improved, to awaken us to 
admire the wondrous wisdom and contrivance of God our 
Creator in all the works of nature. 

If we pursue mathematical speculations, they will inure 
us to attend closely to any subject, to seek and gain clear 
ideas, to distinguish truth from falsehood, to judge justly, 
and to argue strongly ; and these studies do more directly 
furnish us with all the various rules of those useful arts of 
life, namely, measuring, building, sailing, &c. 

Even our very inquiries and disputations about vacuum 
or space and atoms, about incommensurable quantities, and 

To what, should we endeavor to \ What branch of mathematics 1 
apply every speculative study 1 \ Mental arithmetic. 

How should we treat studies, that I Meaning of mental arithmetic? 
are of little, or no practical use 1 { Arithmetic, in which all the opera- 
With little, or no attention. \ tions are performed in the mind, 

Why should we not attend to i without any mechanical exercise of 
them, for the sake of improving the \ the hand. 

mind 1 Practical studies will pro- \ How early should the child be 
bably improve the mind better. j taught to answer questions in arith- 

What minds are likely to be pe- \ metic? As early as possible. 
culiarly roused and invigorated, by \ First and fundamental idea of 
practical studies 1 Those, that are \ arithmetic 1 The idea of one. — 
ardently desirous of doing good. I Second 1 The idea of two. 

To what, will mathematical stud- > What can you say with regard to 
ies inure us 1 i changing our methods of study 1 

When is the best time to produce \ They should rarely be changed, ex- 
this effect? Probably in childhood. \ cept in early life. 

Why? Because the mind is then \ What important inference, may be 
very susceptible of impressions. I deduced from this remark? That 

How young should children begin \ it is very important for youth to 
to study mathematics in books 1 In i adopt the best methods of study, 
general, under six years old. J 



140 OF STUDY, OR MEDITATION. 

the infinite^divisibility of matter and eternal duration, which 
seem to be purely speculative, will shew us some good 
practical lessons, will lead us to see the weakness of our 
nature, and should teach us humility in arguing upon divine 
subjects, and matters of sacred revelation. This should 
guard us against rejecting any doctrine, which is expressly 
and evidently revealed, though we cannot fully understand 
it. It is good sometimes to lose and bewilder ourselves 
in such studies for this very reason, and to attain this prac- 
tical advantage, this improvement in true modesty of spirit. 

XVI. Though we should always be ready to change our 
sentiments of things upon just conviction of their falsehood, 
yet there is not the same necessity of changing our ac- 
customed methods of reading, or study and practice, even 
though we have not been led at first into the happiest 
method. Our thoughts may be true, though we may have 
hit upon an improper order of thinking. Truth does not 
always depend upon the most convenient method. There 
may be a certain form and order, in which we have long 
accustomed ourselves to range our ideas and notions, which 
may be best for us now, though they were not originally 
best in themselves. The inconveniencies of changing may 
be much greater, than the conveniencies we could obtain 
by a new method. 

As for instance ; if a man in his younger days has ranged 
all his sentiments in theology in the method of Ames's 
Medulla Theologice, or Bishop Usher's Body of Divinity, it 
may be much more natural and easy for him to continue to 
dispose all his further acquirements in the same order, 
though perhaps neither of these treatises is in itself written 
in the most perfect method. So when we have long fixed 
our cases of shelves in a library, and ranged our books in 
any particular order, namely, according to their languages, 
or according to their subjects, or according to the alpha- 
betical names of the authors, &c. we are perfectly well 
acquainted with the order, in which they now stand, and 
we can find any particular book, which we seek, or add a 
new book, which we have purchased, with much greater 
ease, than we do in finer cases of shelves, where the books 
are ranged in any- different manner whatsoever. Any dif- 
ferent position 01 the volumes would be new and strange 
and troublesome to us, and would not countervail the in- 
conveniencies of a change. 

So if a man of forty years old has been taught to hold his 
pen aukwardly in his youth, and yet writes sufficiently 



OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 141 

well for all the purposes of his station, it is not worth while 
to teach him now the most accurate methods of handling 
that instrument. For this would create him more trouble 
without equal advantage, and perhaps he might never at- 
tain to write better, after he had placed all his fingers per- 
fectly right with this new accuracy. 



CHAPTER XV. 

OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 

A Student should labor by all proper methods, to ac- 
quire a steady fixation of thought. Attention is a very 
necessary thing, in order to improve our minds. The evi- 
dence of truth does not always appear immediately, nor 
strike the soul at first sight. It is by long attention and 
inspection, that we arrive at evidence ; and it is for want 
of it, we judge falsely of many things. We make haste to 
determine upon a slight and a sudden view ; we confirm 
our guesses, which arise from a glance ; we pass a judg- 
ment, while we have but a confused or obscure perception, 
and thus plunge ourselves into mistakes. This is like a 
man, who Avalking in a mist, or being at a great distance 
from any visible object, (suppose a tree, a man, a horse or 
a church,) judges much amiss of the figure and situation 
and colors of it, and sometimes takes one for the other ; 
whereas, if he would but withhold his judgment, till he 
came nearer to it, or stay, till clearer light came, and 
then would fix his eyes longer upon it, he would secure 
himself from those mistakes. 

Now, in order to gain a greater facility of attention, we 
may observe these rules ; 

I. Cultivate a fondness for the study or knowledge you 

What if a man holds his pen bad- \ and patient thought. 
ly at 40 years old 1 \ Striking couplet, relating to New- 

Fixing Attention. — What ex- \ ton's discoveries ? 
ercise is most important, in order to | N „ tnrp „ n(1 „.,♦„«>>« i aw< , wprfi 
improve our minds'] \ JNatur f>. an ? nature s laws were 

If we determine a question upon n S Yl^T f 1 ', ?£}»**„ t>» or„iaii™a a 
a slight view, into what, shall we \ G °? ^ ld ' Let JSTewton be, and all was 
be likely to plunge 1 \ n ^ n "- 

What conduced more than any \ First direction for fixing atteri' 
thing else to make Newton the prince \ tion ? 
of philosophers 1 Close attention, { How can we cultivate a fondness 



142 OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 

would pursue. We may observe, that there is not much 
difficulty in confining the mind to contemplate, what we 
have a great desire to know ; and especially if they are mat- 
ters of sense, or ideas which paint themselves upon the 
fancy. It is but acquiring a hearty good will and resolu- 
tion to search out and survey the various properties and 
parts of such objects ; and our attention will be engaged, 
if there be any delight or diversion in the study or con- 
templation of them. Therefore mathematical studies 
have a strange influence toward fixing the attention of the 
mind, and giving a steadiness to a wandering disposition ; 
because they deal much in lines, figures and numbers, 
which affect and please the sense and imagination. His- 
tories have a strong tendency the same way ; for they en- 
gage the soul by a variety of sensible occurrences ; when 
it has begun, it knows not, how to leave off. It longs to 
know the final event, through a natural curiosity. Voyages 
and travels, and accounts of strange countries and strange 
appearances, will assist in this work. This sort of study 
detains the mind by the perpetual occurrence and expecta- 
tion of something new, and that which may gratefully strike 
the imagination. 

II. Sometimes we may make use of sensible things and 
corporeal images for the illustration of those notions, which 
are more abstracted and intellectual. Therefore, diagrams 
greatly assist the mind in astronomy and philosophy ; and the 
emblems of virtues and vices may happily teach children, 
and pleasingly impress those useful moral ideas on young 
minds, which perhaps might be conveyed to them with much 
more difficulty, by mere moral and abstracted discourses. 

I confess, in this practice of representing moral subjects 
by pictures, we should be cautious, lest we so far immerse 
the mind in corporeal images, as to render it unfit to take 
in an abstracted and intellectual idea, or cause it to form 
wrong conceptions of immaterial things. This practice 
therefore is rather to be used, at first, in order to get a fixed 
habit of attention, and in some cases only ; but it can never 

for any study ? By reading, think- \ jects by visible. Meaning of visible? 
ing and conversing upon it, and by \ What caution should we use in 
considering the pleasures and ad- I following this rule 1 That we do 
vantages of pursuing it. \ not confound immaterial objects 

What if it is a dry, useless study ? j with material. 
God never required us to like such \ Meaning of confound! 
a study ; and it is best to leave it \ Third direction 1 Study works, 
off, before we meddle with it. \ that are argumentative. — Meaning 

Second direction for fixing the at- \ of the Latin phrase Labor ipse voUip- 
u-ntiua '! Represent intellectual ob- ;j tasl Labor itself is pleasure.. 



OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 143 

be our constant way and method of pursuing all moral, 
abstracted and spiritual themes. 

III. Apply yourself to those studies, and read those au- 
thors, who draw out their subjects into a perpetual chain of 
connected reasonings, wherein the following parts of the 
discourse are naturally and easily derived from those which 
go before. Several of the mathematical sciences, if not 
all, are happily useful for this purpose. This will render 
the labor of study delightful to a rational mind, and will fix 
the powers of the understanding with strong attention, to 
their proper operations, by the very pleasure of it. Labor 
ipse voluptas, is a happy proposition wheresoever it can be 
applied. 

IV. Do not choose your constant place of study by the 
finery of the prospects, or the most various and entertaining 
scenes of sensible things. Too much light, or a variety ot 
objects, which strike the eye or the ear, especially while 
they are ever in motion or often changing, have a natural 
and powerful tendency to steal away the mind too often 
from its steady pursuit of any subject, which we contem- 
plate ; and thereby the soul gets a habit of silly curiosity 
and impertinence, of trifling and wandering. Vagario 
thought himself furnished with the best closet for his study, 
among the beauties, gaieties and diversions of Kensington 
or Hampton-Court. But after seven years professing to 
pursue learning, he was a mere novice still. 

V. Be not in too much haste to come to the determina- 
tion of a difficult or important point. Think it worth your 
waiting, to find out truth. Do not give your assent to either 
side of a question too soon, merely on this account, that the 
study of it is long and difficult. Rather be contented with 
ignorance for a season, and continue in suspense, till your 
attention and meditation and due labor have found out 
sufficient evidence on one side. Some are so fond of know- 
ing a great deal at once, and of talking of things with free- 
dom and boldness, before they understand them, that they 
scarcely ever allow themselves attention enough to search 
the matter through and through. 

VI. Have a care of indulging the more sensual passions 
and appetites of animal nature. They are great enemies 
to attention. Let not the mind of a student be under the 

Is it desirable to have our study | Effect of strongly desiring to know 
pleasantly situated 1 I a great deal at once ? 

What is recommended, with re- ^ Effect of sensual indulgence upon 
gard to deciding difficult and impor- X the habit of attention 1 — of the in^ 
tant points ? , \ diligence of passions 1 



144 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

influence of any warm affection to things of sense, when 
he comes to engage in the search of truth, or the improve- 
ment of his understanding. A person under the power of 
love or fear or anger, great pain or deep sorrow, has so 
little government of his soul, that he cannot keep it atten- 
tive to the proper subject of his meditation. The passions 
call away the thoughts with incessant importunity toward 
the object, that excited them ; and if we indulge the fre- 
quent rise and roving of passions, we shall thereby procure 
an unsteady and inattentive habit of mind. 

Yet this one exception must be admitted, namely, If we 
can be so happy, as to engage any passion on the side of 
the study, which we are pursuing, it may have a great 
influence to fix the attention more strongly to it. 

VII. It is, therefore, very useful to fix and engage 
the mind in the pursuit of any study, by a consideration of 
the divine pleasures of truth and knowledge, by a sense of 
our duty to God, by a delight in the exercise of our intel- 
lectual faculties, by the hope of future service to our 
fellow-creatures, and glorious advantage to ourselves, both 
in this world and that which is to come. These thoughts, 
though they may move our affections* yet they do it with a 
proper influence. These will rather promote our attention, 
than divert it from the subject of our meditations. A soul, 
inspired with the fondest love of truth, and the warmest 
aspirations after sincere celestial beatitude, will keep all 
its powers attentive to the incessant pursuit of them. Pas- 
sion is then refined, and consecrated to its divinest purposes. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

There are three things, which in an especial manner, go 
to make up that amplitude, or capacity of the mind, which 
is one of the noblest characters belonging to the under- 
standing. 1. When the mind is ready to take in great and 

When may a passion be condu- \ tion 1 , 

cive to fix attention ? j How many of these seven direc- 

Important inference from this re- \ tions can you now state ? 
mark ? We should endeavor to en- \ What if the soul is inspired with 
gage our, passions in favor of our \ the fondest love of truth, and warm- 
etudies. '"'../»■*." I est desires for heaven 1 

Last direction for fixing atten- \ Enlarging the mind. — In what 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 145 

sublime ideas, without pain or difficulty ; 2. When the 
mind is free to receive new and strange ideas, upon just 
evidence, without great surprise or aversion ; 3. When the 
mind is able to conceive or survey many ideas at once, 
without confusion, and to form a true judgment, derived 
from that extensive survey. The person, who wants either 
of these characters, may in that respect, be said to have a 
narrow genius. Let us diffuse our meditations a little upon 
this subject. 

I. That is an ample and capacious mind, which is ready 
to take in vast and sublime ideas, without pain or difficulty. 
Persons, who have never been used to converse with any 
thing but the common, little and obvious affairs of life, have 
acquired a narrow or contracted habit of soul, that they are 
not able to stretch their intellects wide enough to admit 
large and noble thoughts. They are ready to make their 
domestic, daily and familiar images of things the measure 
of all that is,. and all that can be. Talk to them of the vast 
dimensions of the planetary worlds ; tell them, that our star 
called Jupiter is a solid globe, 1400 times larger than the 
earth ; that the sun is a vast globe of fire, above a thousand 
times larger than Jupiter ; that is, 1400,000 times larger 
than the earth ; that the distance from the earth to the sun 
is 96 millions of miles ; and that a cannon bullet, shot from 
the earth, would not arrive at the nearest of the fixed stars, 
in some hundreds of years ; they cannot bear the belief, but 
hear all these glorious labors of astronomy, as a mere idle 
romance. Inforrn them of the amazing swiftness of the 
motion of some of the smallest or the largest bodies in 
nature. Assure them, according to the best philosophy, 
that the planet Venus, (that is, our morning or evening star, 
which is nearly as large as our earth,) though it seems to 
move from its place but a few yards in a month, does really 
fly 81,000 miles in an hour ; tell them, that the rays of light 
shoot from the sun to our earth at the rate of 200,000 miles 
in the second of a minute, they stand aghast at such talk, 
and believe it no more, than the tales of giants fifty yards 
high, and the rabbinical fables of Leviathan, who every day 
swallows a fish, three miles long, and is thus preparing 

three things, does amplitude of mind { blime ideas 1 

consist 1 \ • How are persons, who lack this 

In what respect, is any person a l quality, affected, when told of the 
narrow genius, who wants any of \ wonders of astronomy ?— of the won- 
these 1 \ ders of the microscope 1— Meaning 

What is that mind called, which 5 of astronomy? — of microscope ? 
can readily take in great and su- { 

13 



146 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

himself to be the food and entertainment of the blessed at 
the feast of Paradise. 

Note VI, by the Editor. 

[ Wonders of Astronomy. — Since the days of Watts, vast 
improvements have been made in optical instruments, es- 
pecially the telescope. This has enabled astronomers to 
cultivate a more intimate acquaintance with the starry 
heavens. Important corrections have been made in astro- 
nomical instruments ; and the* wonders of astronomy have 
appeared more wondrous still. Some of the statements of 
Watts, therefore, are far below the truth. There is no 
doubt now among philosophers, that Jupiter is 1400 times 
larger than the earth ; that the sun is about 1 000 times 
larger than Jupiter, that the earth is more than 95 millions 
of miles from the sun ; that it moves 81,000 miles every 
hour ; and that light moves about 200,000 miles every 
second. These corrections have accordingly been made 
in the statements of Watts.] 

These unenlarged souls are in the same manner, dis- 
gusted with the wonders, which the microscope has dis- 
covered, concerning the shape, the limbs and motions of 
ten thousand little animals, whose united bulk would not 
equal a pepper corn. They are ready to give the lie to all 
the improvements of our senses, by the invention of a va- 
riety of glasses, and will scarcely believe any thing beyond 
the testimony of their naked eye, without the assistance of 
art. Now if we would attempt in a learned manner, to re- 
lieve the minds, that labor under this defect, 

1. It is useful to begin with some first principles of 
Geometry, and lead them onward by degrees to the doc- 
trine of quantities, which are incommensurable, or which 
will admit of no common measure, though it be ever so 
small. By this means, they will see the necessity of ad- 
mitting the infinite divisibility of space or matter. 

This same doctrine may also be proved to their under- 
standings, and almost to their senses, by some easier argu- 

Why are some of Watts's state- 5 With what first principles, should 

merits in astronomy, very different \ we bejrin, in order to cure the first 

from those of the present day 1 See 5 kind of narrow-mindedness? 

Note Vf . \ , How many miles in circumfer- 

Meaning of optics? — of telescope? \ ence,is the earth 1 About 25,000.— 

What body moves 8i,000 miles | Meaning of circumference? 

eTery hour '! i 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 147 

ments in a more obvious manner. As the very opening 
and closing of a pair of compasses, will evidently prove, 
that if the smallest supposed part of matter be put between 
the points, there will be still less and less distance all the 
way between the legs, till you come to the head or joint. 
Wherefore, there is no such thing possible as the smallest 
quantity. But a little acquaintance with true philosophy 
and mathematical learning would soon teach them, that 
there are no limits either as to the extension of space, or to 
the division of body, and would lead them to believe, there 
are bodies amazingly great or small, beyond their present 
imagination. 

2. It is proper also to acquaint them with the circum- 
ference of our earth, which may be proved by very easy 
principles of geometry, geography and astronomy, to be 
about 25,000 miles round ; as it has been actually found to 
have this dimension by mariners who have sailed round it. 
Then let them be taught, that in every 24 hours, either the 
sun and stars must all move round this earth, or the earth 
must turn round upon its own axis. If the earth itself re- 
yolve thus, then each house or mountain near the equator, 
must move at the rate of a thousand miles in an hour. But 
if, as they generally suppose, the sun or stars move round 
the earth, then, the circumference of their several orbits or 
spheres being vastly greater than this earth, they must have 
a motion prodigiously swifter than a thousand miles an hour. 
Such a thought as this will by degrees, enlarge their minds, 
and they will be taught, even upon their own principle of 
the diurnal revolutions of the heavens, to take in some of 
the vast dimensions of the heavenly bodies, their spaces 
and motions. 

3. To this, should be added the use of telescopes, to 
help them to see the distant wonders in the skies ; and 
microscopes, which discover the minutest part of little ani- 
mals, and reveal some of the finer and most curious works 
of nature. They should be acquainted also with some 
other noble inventions of modern philosophy, which have a 
great influence to enlarge the human understanding ; of 
which I shall take occasion to speak more under the next 
head. 

4. For the same purpose, they may be invited to read 
those parts of Milton's admirable Poem, entitled Paradise 
Lost, where he describes the armies and powers of angels, 
the wars and the senate of devils, the creation of this earth, 
together with the descriptions of heaven, hell and paradise, 



148 OP ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

It must be granted that poesy often deals in these vast 
and sublime ideas. And even if the subject or matter of 
the poem does not require such amazing and extensive 
thoughts, yet tropes and figures, which are some of the 
main powers and beauties of poesy, do so gloriously exalt 
the matter, as to give a sublime imagination, its proper 
relish and delight. So when a boar is chaffed in hunting, 

His nostrils flames expire, 

And his red eye-balls roll with living fire. — Drydcn. 

When Ulysses withholds and suppresses his resentment, 

His wrath comprest 

Recoiling, muttered thunder in his breast. — Pope. 

But especially where the subject is grand, the poet fails 
not to represent it in all its grandeur. So when the su- 
premacy of a God is described, 

He sees with equal eye, as God of all, 

A hero perish, or a sparrow fall ; 

Atoms or systems, into ruin hurl'd, 

And now a bubble burst, and now a world. — Pope. 

This sort of writings has a natural tendency to enlarge 
the capacity of the mind, and make sublime ideas familiar. 
But instead of running always to ancient Heathen poesy, 
with this design, we may with equal if not superior advan- 
tage, apply ourselves to converse with some of the best of 
our modern poets, as well as with the writings of the 
prophets, and the poetical parts of the Bible, namely, the 
book of Job and the Psalms, in which sacred authors, we 
shall find sometimes more sublime ideas, more glorious 
descriptions, more elevated language, than the fondest 
critics have ever found in any of the Heathen versifiers 
either of Greece or Rome ; for the eastern writers use and 
allow much stronger figures and tropes than the western. 

Now there are many and great and sacred advantages to 
he derived from this sort of enlargement of the mind. 

It will lead us into more exalted apprehensions of the 
great God our Creator, than ever we had before. It will 
entertain our thoughts with holy wonder and amazement, 
while we contemplate that being who created these various 

Effect of reaclii)2 sublime poetry 1 \ contemplation of his amazing works, 

Meaning of sublime? \ suited to inspire'? 

Of whom, does this enlargement { Striking line, of Dr. Young, upon 

of mind help us to form exalted con- j this subject? "An undevout as- 

eeptionsl l tronomer, is mad." 

What feelings toward God, is the j 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 149 

works of surprising greatness, and surprising smallness ; 
who has displayed most inconceivable wisdom in the con- 
trivance of all the parts, powers and motions of these little 
animals invisible to the naked eye ; who has manifested a 
most divine extent of knowledge, power and greatness, in 
forming and moving the vast bulk of the heavenly bodies, 
and in surveying and comprehending all those unmeasura- 
ble spaces, in which they move. Fancy, with all her ima- 
ges, is fatigued and overwhelmed in following the planetary 
worlds through such immense stages, such astonishing 
journies, as these are, and resigns its place to the pure in- 
tellect, which learns by degrees to take in such ideas as 
these, and to adore its Creator with new and sublime devo- 
tion. 

And not only are we taught to form juster ideas of the 
great God by these methods, but this enlargement of the 
mind carries us on to nobler conceptions of his intelligent 
creatures. The mind, that deals only in vulgar and com- 
mon ideas, is ready to imagine the nature and powers of 
man to come something too near to God his Maker ; be- 
cause we do not see or sensibly converse with any beings ] 
superior to ourselves. But when the soul has obtained 
a greater amplitude of thought, it will not then immediately 
pronounce every thing to be God, which is above man. It 
then learns to suppose, there may be as many various ranks 
of beings in the invisible world, in a constant gradation 
superior to us, as we ourselves are superior to all the ranks 
of being beneath us in this visible world ; even though we 
descend downward far below the ant and the worm, the 
snail and the oyster, to the least and to the dullest animated 
atoms, which are discovered to us by microscopes. 

By this means, we shall be able to suppose what powers 
angels, whether good or bad, must possess, as well as 
prodigious knowledge, in order to oversee the realms of 
Persia and Greece of old ; or if any such superintend the 
affairs of Great Britain, France, Ireland, Germany, &c. in 
our days ; what power and speed are necessary to destroy 
one hundred eighty-five thousand armed men in one night 
in the Assyrian camp of Sennacherib, and all the first-born 
in the land of Egypt in another, each of which is attributed 
to an angel. 

By these steps, we shall ascend to form more just ideas of 

Of whom, besides God, does this \ Sublime conjecture of Watts, con- 
eniargement of mind help us to form \ cerning the various ranks of beings 1 
aobler conceptions? \ 

13* 

I 



150 OF ENLAttOINQ THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

the knowledge and grandeur, the power and glory of the 
Man Jesus Christ, who is intimately united to God, and is 
one with hirn. Doubtless he is furnished with superior 
powers to all the angels in heaven, because he is employed 
in superior work, and appointed to be the sovereign Lord 
of all the visible and invisible worlds. It is his human 
nature, in which the Godhead dwells bodily, that is ad- 
vanced to these honours and to this empire ; and perhaps 
there is little or nothing in the government of the kingdoms 
of nature and grace, but what is transacted by the Man 
Jesus, inhabited by the divine power and wisdom, and em- 
ployed as a medium or conscious instrument of this exten- 
sive gubernation. 

II. I proceed now to consider the next thing, wherein 
the capacity or amplitude of the mind consists, and that is, 
when the mind is free to receive new and strange ideas and 
propositions upon just evidence, without any great surprise 
or aversion. Those, who confine themselves Avithin the 
circle of their own hereditary ideas and opinions, and who 
never give themselves leave so much as to examine or 
believe any thing, beside the dictates of their own family 
or sect or party are justly charged with a narrowness of 
soul. Let us survey some instances of this imperfection, 
and then direct to the eure of it. 

1. Persons who have been bred up all their days within 
the smoke of their father's chimney, or within the limits of 
their native town or village, are surprised at every new 
sight that appears, when they travel a few miles from home. 
The plowman stands amazed at the shops, the trade, the 
crouds of people, the magnificent buildings, the pomp and 
riches and equipage of the court and city, and would 
hardly believe what was told him, before he saw it. On the 
other hand, the cockney travelling into the country, is sur- 
prised at many actions of the quadruped and winged ani- 
mals in the field, and at many common practices of rural 
affairs. 

If either of these happens to hear an account of the fa- 
miliar and daily customs of foreign countries, he pronounces 
them at once indecent and ridiculous. So narrow are their 
understandings, and their thoughts so confined, that they 

Second narrowness of mind 1 ' Mie visits the city 1 

How is such narrowness cured 1 j What surprises the cockney, wnen 

By travelling, reading, conversation, \ he visits the country 1 

and philosophical experiments. i Meaning of cockney f An igno- 

What aiaazusi the plowman, when \ rant or contemptible Londoner. 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 151 

know not how to believe any thing wise or proper, besides 
what they have been taught to practise. 

This narrowness of mind should be cured by hearing and 
reading the accounts of different parts of the world, and the 
histories of past ages, and of nations and countries distant 
from our own, especially the more polite parts of mankind. 
Nothing tends in this respect so much to enlarge the mind, 
as travelling, that is, making a visit to other towns, cities or 
countries, besides those in which we were born and edu- 
cated. Where our condition does not grant us this privi- 
lege, we must endeavor to supply the want by books. 

2. It is the same narrowness of mind, that awakens the 
surprise and aversion of some persons, when they hear of 
doctrines and schemes in human affairs or in religion, quite 
different from what they have embraced. Perhaps they 
have been trained up from their infancy in one set of notions, 
and their thoughts have been confined to one single track 
both in the civil and religious life, without ever hearing or 
knowing, what other opinions are current among mankind ; 
or at least, they have seen all other notions besides their 
own, represented in a false and malignant light ; where- 
upon they judge and condemn at once, every sentiment 
but what their own party receives, and they think it a piece 
of justice and truth to lay heavy censures upon the practice 
of every different sect in Christianity or politics. They 
have so rooted themselves in the opinions of their party, 
that they cannot hear an objection with patience, nor can 
they hear a vindication, or so much as an apology for any 
set of principles beside their own. All the rest is nonsense 
or heresy, folly or blasphemy. 

This defect also is to be relieved by free conversation 
with persons of different sentiments. This will teach us to 
bear with patience a defence of opinions contrary to our 
own. If we are scholars, we should also read the objections 
against our own tenets, and view the principles of other 
parties, as they are represented in their own authors, and 
not merely in the citations of those who would confute 
them. We should take an honest and unbiassed survey of 
the force of reasoning on all sides, and bring all to the test 
of unprejudiced reason and divine revelation. 

Note, This is not to be done in a rash and self-sufficient 

How do some very rmrrowminded ? In what works, should we read 

persons regard all principles, but \ the principles of other parties 1 

their own 1 f To what test, should we bring all 

How can this be cured 1 \ our opinions, and all objections to 

Meaning of tenets 1 \ them 1 



152 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

manner ; but with a humble dependence on divine wisdom 
and grace, while we walk among snares and dangers. 

By such a free converse with persons of different sects 
(especially those who differ only in particular forms of 
Christianity, but agree in the great and necessary doc- 
trines) we shall find, that there are persons of good sense 
and virtue, persons of piety and worth, persons of much 
candor and goodness, who belong to different parties, and 
have imbibed sentiments opposite to each other. This will 
soften the roughness of an unpolished soul, and enlarge the 
avenues of our charity toward others, and incline us to re- 
ceive them into all the degrees of unity and affection, which 
the word of God requires. 

3. I may borrow further illustrations both of this free- 
dom and this aversion to receive new truths, from modern 
astronomy and natural philosophy. How much is the vul- 
gar part of the world surprised at the talk of the diurnal and 
annual revolutions of the earth ? They have ever been 
taught by their senses and their neighbors, to imagine, the 
earth stands fixed in the centre of the universe, and that 
the sun, with all the planets and the fixed stars, is whirled 
round this little globe once in twenty-four hours ; not con- 
sidering, that such a diurnal motion, by reason of the dis- 
tance of some of those heavenly bodies, must be almost 
infinitely swifter and more inconceivable, than any which 
the modern astronomers attribute to them. Tell these per- 
sons, that the sun is fixed in the centre, that the earth, and 
all the planets, roll round the sun in their several periods, 
and that the moon rolls round the earth in a lesser circle, 
while together with the earth, she is carried round the sun, 
they cannot admit a syllable of this new and strange doc- 
trine, and they pronounce it utterly contrary to all sense 
and reason. 

Acquaint them, that there are four moons also perpetu- 
ally rolling round the planet Jupiter, and carried along with 
him in his periodical circuit round the sun, which little 
moons were never known till the year 1610, when Galileo 
discovered them by his telescope ; inform them, that Saturn 
has seven moons of the same kind attending him ; and that 
the body of that planet is encompassed with two broad, flat 

What pleasing discoveries shall t To what, do many consider the 
we make, by conversing kindly and \ wonders of astronomy, as being con- 
freely, 1 with persons of various re- I trary ? 
ligious denominations? \ How many moons has Saturn 1 

What effect will this have upon \ How many rings has Saturn 1 
the unpolished uiind 1 \ 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OP THE MIND. 153 

circular rings, the nearest distant from the planet 34 thou- 
sand miles, they look upon these things as tales and fancies; 
and will tell you that the glasses do but delude your eyes 
with vain images ; and even when they themselves consult 
their own eye-sight in the use of these tubes, the narrow- 
ness of their mind is such, that they will scarcely believe 
their senses, when they dictate ideas so new and strange. 

And if you proceed further, and attempt to lead them 
into a belief, that all these planetary worlds are habitable, 
and it is probable, they are replenished with intellectual 
beings, dwelling in bodies, they will deride the folly of him 
that informs them ; for they resolve to believe, there are no 
habitable worlds but this earth, and no spirits dwelling in 
bodies besides mankind ; and it is well, if they do not fix 
the brand of heresy on the man, who is leading them out of 
their long imprisonment, and loosing the fetters of their 
souls. 

There are many other things relating to mechanical ex- 
periments, and to the properties of the air, water, fire, iron, 
the loadstone, and other minerals and metals, as well as the 
doctrine of the sensible qualities, namely, colors, sounds, 
tastes, &c. which this class of men cannot believe, for want 
of a greater amplitude of mind. 

The best way to convince them, is by giving them some 
acquaintance with the various experiments in philosophy, 
and proving by ocular demonstration the multiform and 
amazing operations of the air pump, the loadstone, the 
chemical furnace, optical glasses and mechanical engines. 
By this means, the understanding will stretch itself by de- 
grees, and when they have found there are so many new and 
strange things, that are most evidently true, they will not 
be so forward to condemn every new proposition in any of 
the other sciences, or in the affairs of religion and civil life. 

III. The capacity of the understanding includes yet 
another qualification, and that is, an ability to receive many 
ideas at once, without confusion. The ample mind takes a 

What if these narrow-minded per- { they be viewed in very rapid suc- 
sons are told, that the planets are \ cession, and seem, as though they 
probably inhabited 1 § were viewed at the same moment ? 

What experiments may be best \ Can any mind, contemplate more 
suited to convince such persons of \ than one object, at the same mo- 
their errors 'i | ment? The divine Mind certainly 

Third thing, in which the ampli- { can ; and propably some human 
tude of the mind consists 1 \ minds can at the same moment, 

Is it probable, that the mind can \ contemplate several, 
contemplate a great variety of ob- { Why does such a view seem need- 
jects, at the same moment ? or may \ ful for a correct decision 1 Several 



154 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

survey of several objects with one glance, keeps them all 
within sight, and present to the soul, that they may be com- 
pared together in their mutual respects. It forms just 
judgments, and it draws proper inferences from this com- 
parison, even to a great length of argument, and a chain 
of demonstrations. 

The narrowness, that belongs to minds in general, is a 
great imperfection and impediment to wisdom and happi- 
ness. There are but few persons, who can contemplate, or 
ftractise several things at once. Our faculties are very 
imited ; and while we are intent upon one part or property 
of a subject, we have but a slight glimpse of the rest or we 
lose it out of sight. But it is a sign of a large and capa- 
cious mind, if we can with one single view tB.ke in a variety 
of objects; or at least, when the mind can apply itself to 
several objects with so swift a succession, and in so few 
moments, as attains almost the same ends, as if it were all 
done in the same instant. 

This is a necessary qualification, in order to great knowl- 
edge and good judgment. For there are several things in 
human life, in religion and in the sciences, which nave 
various circumstances, appendixes and relations attending 
them ; and without a survey of all those ideas, which are 
mutually related and connected, we are often in danger of 
passing a false judgment on the subject proposed. It is for 
this reason, there are so many controversies among the 
learned and unlearned, in matters of religion, as well m the 
affairs of civil government. The notions of sin, and duty to 
God and our fellow-creatures ; of law, justice, authority and 
power ; of covenant, faith, justification, redemption and 
grace ; of church, bishop, ordination, &c. contain in them 
such complicated ideas, that when we are to judge of any 
thing concerning them, it is hard to take into our view at 
once, all the attendants or consequents, that must and will 
be concerned in the determination of a single question. 
And yet without a due attention to many, or to most 
of these, we are in danger of determining the question 
amiss. 



circumstances must be compared, in 5 ideas together, unless they are to- - 

order for a correct conclusion. 5 gether. 

How many ideas must be in the How many ideas must the mind I 

mind at a time, in order to form a \ have at once, in order to form a clear r 

comparison 1 At least two. conception of a triangle ? At least t 

Why ? A comparison always im- 1 three, 

plies at least two things compared, I Why 1 Because a triangle haa i 

and the mind cannot compare two \ three sides. 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 155 

It is owing to the narrowness of our minds, that we are 
exposed to the same peril in the matters of human duty and 
prudence. In many things, which we do, we ought not 
only to consider the mere naked action itself, but the per- 
sons who act, the persons toward whom, the time when, the 
place where, the manner how, the end for which, the action 
is done, together with the effects, that must, or that may 
follow, and all other surrounding circumstances. These 
things must necessarily to taken into our view, in order to 
determine whether the action, indifferent in itself, is either 
lawful or unlawful, good or evil, wise or foolish, decent or 
indecent, proper or improper. 

Let me give a plain instance for the illustration of this 
matter. Mario kills a dog ; which, considered merely in 
itself, seems to be an indifferent action. Now the dog was 
Timon's, and not his own. This makes it look unlawful. 
But Timon bid him do it. This gives it an appearance of 
lawfulness again. It was done at church, and in time of 
divine service. These circumstances added, cast on it an 
air of irreligion. But the dog flew at Mario, and put him 
in danger of his life. This relieves the seeming impiety of 
theaction. But Mario might have escaped by flying thence. 
Therefore, the action appears to be improper. But the dog 
was known to be mad ; this further circumstance makes it 
almost necessary, that the dog' should be slain, lest he 
might attack the assembly, and do much mischief. Yet 
again, Mario killed him with a pistol, which he happened to 
have in his pocket, since yesterday's journey. — Now here- 
by the whole congregation was terrified and discomposed,, 
and divine service was broken off. This carries in it an 
appearance of great indecency and impropriety. But after 
all, when we consider a further circumstance, that Mario, 
being thus violently assaulted by a mad dog, had no way 
of escape, and had no other weapon about him, it seems to 
take away all the color of impropriety, indecency or unlaw- 
fulness, and to allow, that the preservation of one or many 
lives may justify the act as wise and good. Now all these 
concurrent appendixes of the action ought to be surveyed, 
in order to pronounce with justice and truth, concerning it. 
There are a multitude of human actions in private life, in 
domestic affairs, in traffic, in civil government, in courts of 

Can you mention some of the cir- \ mentioned? 
cumstances, that must often be taken \ What circumstances, taken by 
into view, in order to determine, \ themselves, would seem to imply, 
whether an action is good or bad 1 \ that he did wrong 1 — that he did 

Did Mario do right, in the case \ right ? 



15G OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

justice, in schools of learning, &c. which have so many 
complicated circumstances, aspects and situations, with re- 
gard to time and place, persons and things, that it is impos- 
sible for any one to pass a right judgment concerning them, 
without entering into most of these circumstances, and sur- 
veying them extensively, and comparing and balancing 
them all aright. 

Whence by the way, I may take occasion to say, how 
many thousands there are, who take it upon them to pass 
their censures on the personal and the domestic actions of 
others, who also, pronounce boldly on the affairs of the 
public, and determine the justice or madness, the wisdom 
or folly of national administrations, of peace and war, &c. 
whom neither God nor men ever qualified for such a post 
of judgment. They were not capable of entering into the 
numerous concurring springs of action; nor had they ever 
taken a survey of the twentieth part of the circumstances, 
which were necessary for such judgments or censures. 

It is the narrowness of our minds, as well as the vices of 
the will, that often prevents us from taking a full view of 
all the complicated and concurring appendixes, that belong 
to human actions. Thence it comes to pass, that there is 
so little right judgment, so little justice, prudence or de- 
cency, practised among the bulk of mankind. Thence arise 
infinite reproaches and censures, alike foolish and un- 
righteous. You see, therefore, how needful and happy a 
thing it is, to be possest of some measure of this amplitude 
of soul, in order to make us very wise or knowing or just or ' 
prudent or happy. 

I confess, this sort of amplitude or capacity of mind, is in i 
a great measure, the gift of Nature ; for some are born with i 
much more capacious souls than others. 

The genius of some persons is so poor and limited, that I 
they can hardly take in the connection of two or three prop- 
ositions, unless it be in matters of sense, and which they 
have learnt by experience. They are utterly unfit fori 

_j£ 

Why do many thousands often I pend upon native genius, or upon 1 
judge incorrectly of public and pri- \ culture'? — Upon which, most! — 
vate actions. \ Meaning of prolix? 

What besides narrowness of mind, { What should persons of dull genius s 
often prevents us from taking a full I never attempt to be 1 
view of circumstances 1 \ What jf these dull geniuses had! 

What is meant by the vices of i been much better educated, from i 
the will? Bad passions or afi'ec- \ their very infancy ? Probably, they s 
tions. 5 would have been respectable schol- 

Can you mention some of them 1 I ars, perhaps enlighteners of man- 
Does this amplitude of mind de- \ kind. 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 157 

speculative studies. It is hard for them to discern the dif- 
ference between right and wrong, in matters of reason, on 
any abstract subjects. These ought never to set up for 
scholars ; but apply themselves to those arts and profes- 
sions of life, which are to be learnt at an easier rate, by 
slow degrees and daily experience. 

Others have a soul a little more capacious, and they can 
take in the connection of a few propositions pretty well ; 
but if the chain of consequences be a little prolix, here 
they stick, and are confounded. If persons of this make 
ever devote themselves to science, they should be well 
assured of a solid and strong constitution of body, and well 
resolved to bear the fatigue of hard labor and diligence in 
study. If the iron be blunt, says Solomon, we must put 
to more strength. 

But, in the third place, there are some of so bright and 
happy a genius, and so ample a mind, that they can take in 
a long train of propositions, if not at once, yet fn a very few 
moments, and judge well concerning the dependence of 
them. They can survey a variety of complicated ideas 
without fatigue or disturbance ; and a number of truths 
offering themselves, as it were in one view, to their under- 
standing, does not perplex nor confound them. This makes 
a great man. 

Now though there may be much owing to nature in this 
case, yet experience assures us, that even a lower degree 
of this capacity may be increased by diligence and applica- 
tion, by frequent exercise, and the observation of such rules 
as these. i ' 

I. Labor by all means, to gain an attentive and patient 
temper of mind, a power of confirming and fixing your 
thoughts on any subject, till you have surveyed it on every 
side, and in every situation, and run though the several 
powers, parts, properties and relations, effects and conse- 
quences of it. He, whose thoughts are very fluttering and 
wandering, and cannot be fixed attentively to a few ideas 
successively, will never be able to survey many and various 
objects distinctly at once, but will certainly be overwhelmed 
and confounded with the multiplicity of them. The rules 
for fixing the attention, in the former chapter, are proper to 
be consulted here. 

II. Accustom yourself to clear and distinct ideas in every 

What makes a great man 1 \ tent of thought ? 

How many rules does Watts give, \ ' What is the first of these rules ? 
for increasing the capacity and ex- \ To what kind of ideas, should we 

14 



158 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

thing you think. Be not satisfied with obscure and con- 
fused conceptions of things, especially where clearer may 
be obtained. For one obscure or confused idea, especially, 
if it be of great importance in the question, intermingled 
with many clear ones, and placed in its variety of aspects, 
will be in danger of spreading confusion over the whole ; 
and thus may have an influence to overwhelm the under- 
standing with darkness, and pervert the judgment. A little 
black paint will shamefully tincture and spoil twenty gay- 
colors. 

Consider yet further, that if you content yourself fre- 
quently with words instead of ideas, or with cloudy and 
confused notions of things, how impenetrable will that dark- 
ness be, and how vast and endless that confusion, which 
must surround and involve the understanding, when many 
of these obscure and confused ideas come to be set before 
the soul at once ! and how impossible it will be, to form a 
clear and just judgment about them. 

III. Use all diligence to acquire and treasure up a large 
store of ideas. Talte every opportunity to add something 
to your stock ; and by frequent recollection, fix them in 
your memory. Nothing tends to confirm and enlarge the 
memory, like a frequent review of its possessions. This 
will gradually give the mind a faculty of surveying many 
objects at once ; as a room, that is richly adorned and hung 
round with a variety of pictures, strikes the eye almost at 
once, with all that variety, especially if they have been well 
surveyed one by one at first. This makes it habitual, and 

accustom ourselves, for this purpose? i and much less without it. 

What m;iy be the effect of one \ Why should not we spend our 

obscure idea, intermingled with { time upon trifles and fictions 1 Time 

many clear ones ? \ is too short and too precious. 

Of what, should we strive to treas- ? For what, will attention to fiction, 

ure up a large store ? j be likely to destroy or diminish our 

When should we add to our stock j regard 1 For truth and reality, 

of ideas? ] When may we attend to fiction ? 

When should this treasure begin ? I When a little instructive fiction is 

Jn infancy. \ intimately connected with much 

Who should then endeavor to \ useful truth, and when it is very 

make this infantine store as rich as j manifest, that it is fiction, 

possible 1 Parents, teachers of in- j What example of this is most 

fant schools, and all who can assist. \ striking? The parables of the Bible. 

Why should this store of ideas 5 Why may we read Pilgrim's Pro- 
begin in infancy 1 That the mind 1 gress, without injury ? The spiritual 
may be more improved, and more j meaning is so obvious and striking, 
abundantly stored in the maturity \ that it should be regarded as a reality, 
of life. | rather than as a fiction. 

May not persons learn enough, | How shall xve retain the ideas, 

without this early effort 1 No one \ that we acquire? 

can learn half enough, even with it ; \ 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 159 

more easy to the inhabitants to take in many of those paint- 
ed scenes, with a single glance or two. 

Here note, that by acquiring a rich treasure of notions, I 
do not mean single ideas only, but also propositions, ob- 
servations and experiences, with reasonings and arguments 
upon the various subjects, that occur among natural or 
moral, common or sacred affairs ; that when you are called 
to judge concerning any question, you will have some prin- 
ciples of truth, some useful axioms and observations always 
at hand, to direct and assist your judgment. 

IV. It is necessary, that we should, as far as possible, 
lay up our daily new ideas, in a regular order, and arrange 
our mental acquisitions under proper heads, whether of 
divinity, law, physics, mathematics, morality, politics, trade, 
domestic life, civility, decency, &c. whether of cause, ef- 
fect, substance, mode, power, property, body, spirit, &c. 
We should inure our minds to method and order continually. 
When we take in any fresh ideas, occurrences and observa- 
tions, we should dispose of them in their proper places, and 
see how they stand and agree with the rest of our notions 
on the same subject; as a scholar would dispose of a new 
book on a proper shelf, among its kindred authors ; or as an 
officer at the post-house in London disposes of every letter 
he takes in, placing it in the box, that belongs to the proper 
road or county. 

In any of these cases, if things lay all in a' heap, the 
addition of any new object would increase the confusion ; 
but method gives a speedy and short survey of them with 
ease and pleasure. Method is of admirable advantage to 
keep our ideas from a confused mixture ; and to preserve 
them ready for every use. 

V. As method is necessary for the improvement of the 
mind, in order to make your treasure of ideas most useful ; 
so in all your further pursuits of truth and acquirement of 
knowledge, observe a regular, progressive method. Begin 
with the most simple, easy and obvious ideas. Then by 

When we acquire any new ideas, { other, 
how shall we dispose of them 1 \ How can we associate ideas to- 

What is meant by disposing of \ getherl By thinking of them at the 
ideas in regular order ? Associating \ same time, or in quick succession, 
them with other ideas, to which j For what, is mental method of 
they are allied. \ admirable advantage 1 

What is meant by the association \ When should we inure our minds 
of ideas'? Uniting them, or having \ to method ? 

them so united in the mind, that \ When should we observe a pro- 
whcn we think of one, it will have \ gressive method 1 As we advance 
a tendency to make us think of the \ in science. 



160 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 

degrees, join two and three and more of them together. 
Thus the complicated ideas, growing up under your ob- 
servation, will not give the same contusion of thought, as 
they would, if they were all offered to the mind at once, 
without your observing the original and formation of them. 
An eminent example of this appears in the study of arith- 
metic. If a scholar, just admitted into the school, observes 
his master performing an operation in the rule of division, 
his head is at once disturbed and confounded with the mani- - 
fold comparisons of the numbers of the divisor and dividend, 
and the mutiplication of the one, and subtraction of it from 
the other. But if he begins regularly at addition, and so 
proceeds by subtraction and multiplication, he will then in a 
few weeks, be able to take an intelligent survey of all 
those operations in division, and to practise them himself 
with ease and pleasure ; each of which at first seemed all 
intricacy and confusion. 

An illustration of the like nature may be borrowed from 
geometry and algebra, and other mathematical practices. 
How easily does an expert geometer, with one glance of 
his eye, take in a complicated diagram, made up of many 
lines and circles, angles and arcs! How readily does he 
judge of it, Avhether the demonstration designed by it be 
true or false ! It was by degrees, he arrived at this stretch 
of understanding. He began with a single line or a point. 
He joined two lines in an angle. He advanced to triangles 
and squares, polygons and circles. Thus the powers of his 
understanding were stretched and augmented daily, till by 
diligence and regular application, he acquired this exten- 
sive faculty of mind. 

But this advantage does not belong to mathematics only 
If we apply ourselves at first, in any science, to clear and 
single ideas, and never hurry ourselves on to the following 
and more complicated parts of knowledge, till we thorough- 
ly understand the foregoing, we may practise the same 
method of enlarging the capacity of the soul with success 
in any one of the sciences, or in the affairs of life and reli- 
gion. 

Beginning with A, B, C, and making syllables out of let- 
ters, and words out of syllables, has been the foundation of 
all that glorious superstructure of arts and sciences, which 
have enriched the minds and libraries of the learned world 

In what study, have we an emi- j mentioned, may we practise the 
nent example of this 1 \ same method 1 

In what other science, or thing { 



OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 161 

in many ages. These are the first steps, by which the 
ample and capacious souls among mankind have arrived at 
that prodigious extent of knowledge, which renders them 
the wonder and glory of the nation, where they lived. 
Though Plato and Cicero, Descartes and Boyle, Locke and 
Newton, were doubtless favored by Nature, with a genius 
of uncommon amplitude ; yet in their early years, and first 
attempts at science, this was but limited and narrow, in 
comparison of what they attained at last. But how vast 
and capacious were those powers, which they afterwards 
acquired by patient attention, and watchful observation, by 
the pursuit of clear ideas and regular method of thinking • 

VI. Another means of acquiring this amplitude and ca- 
pacity of mind, is a perusal of difficult, entangled questions, 
and of the solution of them in any science. Speculative 
and casuistical divinity will furnish us with many such cases 
and controversies. There are some such difficulties in 
reconciling several parts of the epistles of Paul, relating to 
the Jewish law, and the Christian gospel. A happy solu- 
tion will require such an extensive view of things ; and the 
reading of these happy solutions will enlarge this faculty 
in younger students. In morals and political subjects, 
Puffendorf's Law of Nature and Nations, and several de- 
terminations therein, will promote the same amplitude of 
mind. An attendance on public trials and arguments, in 
civil courts of justice, will be of advantage for this purpose ; 
and after a man has studied the general principles of the 
law of nature and the laws of England, in proper books, the 
reading the reports of adjudged cases, collected by men 
of great sagacity and judgment, will richly improve his mind 
toward acquiring this desirable amplitude and extent of 

thought, and more especially in persons of that profession. 

i — — — _ — — — . — . ~ *— 

How did Locke, Newton, &c. I What is the last method, which 
vastly increase their powers of < Watts mentions, for acquiring ain- 
Ihought? j plitude and capacity of mind ? 



14* 



162 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



Miscellaneous Questions, No. 5. 



When should we learn to dis- 
tinguish between names and things ? 

When we study words, of what 
should we endeavor to gain clear 
conceptions ? 

How *ar should delight be mingled 
with study 1 

What science is superior to all 
the rest 1 

Couplet respecting Newton's dis- 
coveries 1 

What are some of the things, in 
which amplitude of mind consists 1 

What planet has 7 moons ? 

When are words useless to us 1 

Why is it necessary to pay very 
particular attention to words in pur- 
suing our studies 1 

In relation to what, may every 
study be rendered an amusement 1 

Relative importance of theology ? 

What conduced more than any 
thing else, to make Newton the 
prince of philosophers 1 

When may passion be useful in 
study ? 

Science, that treats of the heaven- 
ly bodies ? 

What mind can certainly contem- 
plate many objects at the same time ? 

What is implied in knowing the 
meaning of words 1 

Why is it peculiarly desirable to 
have clear ideas upon theology ? 

How far are the circumstantials 
of religion to be regarded 1 

Who was the prince of philoso- 
phers ? 

In favor of what should we en- 
deavor to engage our passions? 

"Instrument, that greatly magnifies 
very small objects 1 

Can a human mind contemplate 
more than one object at a time 1 

How are words formed, that we 
can see ? 

Why should we not begin to study 
a science in the middle 1 

In proportion to what, should we 
pursue every study 1 

Advantages of allotting particular 
times to particular studies 1 

What did close attention and pa- 
tient thought conduce to make New- 
ton 1 

Science, that treats of light and 
seeing? 

What planet has 2 rings 1 



How are- words formed, that we 
can hear ? 

If one study is much more im- 
portant than another, which should 
we attend to most 1 

To what, shall we endeavor to 
apply every speculative study ? 

Instrument, that magnifies very 
distant objects 1 

What geometrical figure has three 
sides ? 

How many of the senses are em- 
ployed in perceiving words 1 

How must we proceed, in order to 
learn very difficult truths ? 

Why are speculations sometimes 
useful 1 

How should we treat studies, that 
are of little or no practical use 1 

In what instruments, have there 
been very great improvements, since 
the days of Watts 1 

What may be the effect of one 
obscure idea, mingled with many 
clear ones 1 

What do written words immedi- 
ately represent ? 

Effect of pursuing too many stud- 
ies at once 1 

What speculations are most im- 
portant 1 

How can we gain a fondness for 
any study 1 

What body is about 25,000 miles 
in circumference 1 

Property of things, which tends 
exceedingly to elevate the mind ? 

When should we add to our stock 
of ideas 1 

How shall we retain the ideas, 
that we acquire 1 

What do spoken words immedi- 
ately represent 1 

How can dry studies be rendered 
agreeable 1 

To what doctrines of religion, 
should we pay most attention 1 
\ What caution should we use in 
| representing intellectual objects by 
| visible ? 

\ Who said " An undevout astrono- 
| mer is mad 1" 

When should a person's treasure 
of ideas begin 1 

What is meant by the association 
of ideas ? 

Since whose days, have optical 
instruments been much improved 1 



OP IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 163 



CHAPTER XVII. 

OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

Memory is a distinct faculty of the mind, very different 
from perception, judgment, reasoning, and its other powers. 
Then we are said to remember any thing, when the idea of 
it arises in the mind with a consciousness at the same time 
that we have had this idea before. Our memory is our 
natural power of retaining what we learn and of recalling 
it on every occasion. Therefore we can never be said to 
remember any thing, whether it be ideas or propositions, 
words or things, notions or arguments, of which we have 
not had some former idea or perception, either by sense or 
imagination, thought or reflection. Whatsoever we learn 
from observation, books, conversation, &c. it must all be 
laid up and preserved in the memory, if we would make it 
really useful. 

Note VII, by the Editor. 

[Brown's Suggestion. — Dr. Thomas Brown appears to 
have made an unhappy mistake in relation to this subject. 
He would substitute the term suggestion for association. 
But these words, acccording to established usage, signify 
very different things ; as different, as any cause and effect. 
Association seems most happily to express that uniting or 
union or connecting of ideas, in consequence of which, one 
will suggest the other, or recall it to the view of the mind ; 

Memory. — What is memory ? i Which of these faculties does 

How many faculties, seem to be | memory more especially signify 1 — 

expressed in this definition 1 j Retention. 

What are they often called 1 Re- \ What other narrie?fcs more gen- 

tention and recollection. j erally given to the faculty of storing 

How does it appear, that they are ? up ideas ? Association, or associa- 

properly two faculties 1 One may be \ tion of ideas. 

very perfect, and the other very im- \ What name has Dr. Brown sub- 
perfect, in the same person. I stituted, for association 1 See Note 

What other faculty is the memory \ VII. 

sometimes considered as including? j What might this word be more 

The faculty of storing up ideas in | properly used to express 1 

ihe mind. j What previous exercise prepares 

What is the exercise of this latter \ the way for one idea to suggest 

faculty generally called ? Commit- \ another 1 
ing to memory, or memorizing. \ 



164 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

or at least, tend to this effect. If the word recollection did 
not happily express the thing intended, suggestion might 
be substituted for this purpose. But with no shadow of 
propriety, can it be applied to that exercise, by which ideas 
are received into the mind, by being united with others, or 
for that union of ideas, which are said to be treasured up in i 
the memory, in consequence of which union, one idea will 
suggest another ; or in other words, may be recalled, or : 
recollected, by means of its associate.] 

So necessary and so excellent a faculty is the memory, . 
that all other abilities of the mind borrow from it, their r 
beauty and perfection. For other capacities of the soul are 
almost useless without this. To what purpose, are all ouri 
labors in knowledge and wisdom, if we want memory to 
preserve and use what we have acquired ? What signify 
all other intellectual or spiritual improvements, if they are 
lost, as soon as they are obtained ? It is memory alone, 
that enriches the mind, by preserving what our labor ancti 
industry daily collect. In a word, there can be neither 
knowledge nor arts nor sciences, without memory ; nor' 
can there be any improvement of mankind in virtue on 
morals, or the practice of religion, without the assistance 
and influence of this power. Without memory, the soul of! 
man would be but a poor, destitute, naked being, with am 
everlasting blank spread over it, except the fleeting ideas 
of the present moment. 

Note VIII, by the Editor. 

[Memory. — These remarks of Watts upon memory, appeal 
to be peculiarly excellent, and deserving of the most earnest 
attention. The youthful mind is now in great danger of! 
erring exceedingly, respecting the relative importance off 
this faculty. Surely no faculty can be more importantt 
What indeed could all the faculties do without memory : 
But how often do we now find writers and teachers speak-; 
ing of memory almost in strains of contempt, as though ii 
was a faculty, scarcely worth cultivating — scarcely wortti 



What do the other faculties bor- I edgel 
row from memory ? j What would the soul be, withoui 

When we remember any thing, \ memory ? 
are we always conscious, that it j Why is the youthful mind, in dam 
was in the mind before ? Probably 5 ger of erring, respecting the relativ 
we are not. j importance of memory 1 See Noti 

What is the store house of knowl- \ VIII. 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 165 

possessing ! There is no doubt, that in past ages, many 
have esteemed the memory too highly, in comparison with 
the judgment, the perception, &c. Bat perhaps their error 
was not greater, than that of many more modern declaimers 
upon these faculties. Watts appears to have been much 
more correct in considering all these faculties and their 
improvement of inestimable moment.] 

Memory is very useful to those who speak, as well as to 
those who learn. It assists the teacher and the orator, as 
well as the scholar or the hearer. The best speeches and 
instructions are almost lost, if those who hear, immediately 
forget them. And those, who are called to speak in public, 
are much better heard and accepted, when they can deliver 
their discourse by the help of a lively genius and a ready 
memory, than when they are forced to read all they would 
communicate. Reading is certainly a heavier way of con- 
veying our sentiments ; and there are very few mere read- 
ers, who have the felicity of penetrating the soul, and 
awakening the passions of those who hear, by such a grace 
and power of oratory, as the man who seems to talk every 
word from his very heart, and pours out the riches of his 
own knowledge upon the people round about him, by the 
help of a free and copious memory. This gives life and 
spirit to every thing that is spoken, and has a natural ten- 
dency to make a deeper impression on the minds of men. 
It awakens the dullest spirits, causes them to receive a dis- 
course with more affection and pleasure, and adds a singular, 
grace and excellence both to the person and his oration. 

A good judgment and a good memory are very different. 
A person may have a very strong, capacious and retentive 
memory, where the judgment is very weak ; as sometimes 
it happens in those, who are but one degree above an 
idiot, who have manifested an amazing strength and extent 

When was the memory too highly i sermons, very cold and uninterest- 
estimated, in comparison with the \ ingj Because they read badly. 
judgment, &c. 1 * i Why are some extemporaneous 

What is likely to be the effect of \ preachers very unprofitable to their 
preaching, if the preacher seems to I hearers ? Either because they are 
speak every word, from his very ; not good workmen, or have not well 
heart 1 j studied their sermons. 

Why are some preachers, who \ What manner of preaching is 
preach good sermons from memory, \ best 1 One may be best for some 
very lifeless and dull ? Probably, \ preachers, and another for others, 
because they make such an effort to \ Does a good judgment always at. 
recollect the words of their sermons. \ tend a strong memory 1 

Why are some, who read their \ 



166 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

of memory, but have hardly been able to join or disjoin two 
or three ideas in a wise and happy manner to make a solid, 
rational proposition. 

There have been instances of others, who have had but 
a very tolerable power of memory : yet their judgment has 
been of much superior degree, just and wise, solid and 
excellent. 

Yet it must be acknowledged, that where a happy me- 
mory is found in any person, there is good foundation laid 
for a wise and just judgment of things, wjierever the natural 
genius has any thing of sagacity to make a right use of it. 
A good judgment must always, in some measure, depend 
upon a survey and comparison of several things together in 
the mind, and determining the truth of some doubtful pro- 
position, by that survey and comparison. When the mind 
has, as it were, set all those various objects present before 
it, which are necessary to form a true proposition or judg- 
ment concerning any thing, it then determines, that such 
and such ideas are to be joined or disjoined, to be affirmed 
or denied ; and this in a consistency and correspondence 
with all those other ideas or propositions, which in any way, 
relate or belong to the same subject. Now there can be 
no such comprehensive survey of many things without a tol- 
erable degree of memory. It is by reviewing things past, 
we learn to judge of the future. It happens sometimes, 
that if one needful or important object or idea be absent, 
the judgment concerning the thing considered, will thereby 
become false or mistaken. 

You will inquire then, How comes it to pass, that there 
are some persons who appear in the world of business, as 
well as in the world of learning, to have a good judgment, 
and have acquired the just character of prudence and wis- 
dom, and yet have neither a very bright genius nor sagacity 
of thought, nor a very happy memory, so that they cannot 
set before their minds at once, a large scene of ideas, in 
order to pass a judgment ? 

What does Watts here consider, i confusion. 

as one foundation for a just judg- How do we learn to judge of the 

inent of things 1 \ future ? 

Upon what survey and compari- \ What science, then, is peculiarly 

son, must a good judgment always \ important, for the direction of our 

depend? ] conduct 1 History. 

Of what, does this survey imply I In applying the instructions of 

« tolerable degree 1 \ history, for what, should we be very 

Three grand obstacles to correct \ cautious to make allowance ? Dif- 

judgment? Hurry, perturbation and \ ference of circumstances. 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY, 1G7 

Now we may learn from Penseroso some account of this 
difficulty. You will scarcely ever find this man forward in 
judging and determining things proposed to him. He always 
takes time, and delays, and suspends, and ponders things 
maturely, before he passes his judgment. Then he prac- 
tises a slow meditation, ruminates on the subject, and thus 
perhaps in two or three nights and days, rouses those 
several ideas, one after another, as he can, which are neces- 
sary, in order to judge right of the thing proposed, and 
make them pass before his review in succession. This he 
does to relieve the want both of a quick sagacity of thought, 
and of a ready memory and speedy recollection. This 
cautious practice lays the foundation of his just judgment 
and wise conduct. He surveys well, before he judges. 

Whence, I cannot but take occasion to infer one good rule 
of advice to persons of higher as well as lower genius, and of 
large as well as narrow memories, namely, that they do not 
too hastily pronounce concerning matters of doubt or in- 
quiry, where there is not an urgent necessity of present 
action. The bright genius is ready to be so forward, as 
often betrays itself into great errors in judgment, speech 
and conduct, without a continual guard upon itself, and 
using the bridle of the tongue. And it is by this delay and 
precaution, that many a person of much lower natural 
abilities, will often excel persons of the brightest genius in 
wisdom and prudence. 

It is often found, that a fine genius has but feeble memory. 
For where the genius is bright, and the imagination vivid, 
the power of memory may be too much neglected, and lose 
its improvement. An active fancy readily wanders over a 
multitude of objects, and is continually entertaining itself 
with new flying images. It runs through a number of new 
scenes or neAv pages with pleasure, but without due atten- 
tion, and seldom sufFqrs itself to dwell long enough upon 
any one of them, to make a deep impression upon the mind, 
and commit it to lasting remembrance. This is one plain 
and obvious reason, why there are some persons of very 

In what manner, does Penseroso \ Why do bright, geniuses so often 
judge? — Why 1 { mistake and err! From presump- 

Of what, does this slow and cau- \ tion and impatience, 
tious practice lay the foundation 1 \ Why has a fine genius often but 

Who may take courage and com- 5 a feeble memory ? 
fort from the example of Pen?eroso? \ How may a great memory cramp 
Persons of ordinary powers of mind. | invention! By hindering a person 

Into what, does bright genius j from pursuing his own thoughts, 
often betray a person ? \ 



168 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

bright parts and active spirits, who have but short and nar- 
row powers of remembrance ; for having riches of their 
own, they are not solicitous to borrow. 

As such a quick and various fancy and invention may be 
some hindrance to the attention and memory, so a mind of 
a good retentive ability, and which is ever crowding its 
memory with things, which it learns and reads continually, 
may prevent, restrain and cramp the invention itself. The 
memory of Lectorides is ever ready upon all occasions, to 
offer to his mind something out of other men's writings or 
conversations, and is presenting him with the thoughts of 
other persons perpetually. Thus the man, who had natural- 
ly a good flowing invention, does not suffer himself to pur- 
sue his own thoughts. Some persons, who have been blest 
by nature with sagacity and no contemptible genius, have 
too often forbid the exercise of it, by tying themselves 
down to the memory of the volumes they have read, and 
the sentiments of other men contained in them. 

Where the memory has been almost constantly employ- 
ing itself in gathering new acquirements, and where there 
has not been a judgment sufficient to distinguish, what 
things were fit to be recommended and treasured up in the 
memory, and what things were idle, useless or needless, 
the mind has been filled with a wretched heap and mixture 
of words or ideas ; and the soul, may be said to have had 
large possessions, but no true riches. 

1 have read in some of Mr. Milton's writings a very 
beautiful simile, whereby he represents the books of the 
fathers, as they are called in the Christian church. " What- 
soever," says he, " old Time, with his huge drag-net, has 
conveyed down to us along the stream of ages, whether it 
be shells or shell-fish, jewels or pebbles, sticks or straws, 
sea-weeds or mud, these are the ancients, these are the 
fathers." The case is much the same with the memorial 
possessions of the greatest part of mankind. /A few useful 
things, perhaps, mixed and confounded with many trifles 
and all manner of rubbish, fill up their memories and com- 
pose their intellectual possessions. It is a great happiness, 

When the memory has made vast 5 Why should not some things be ! 
collections, without judgment or \ memorized, merely to strengthen the ! 
order, what may it be said to have I memory? There are more things i 
gained ? \ of intrinsic Value, than any one can i 

With what are the memories of \ possibly learn ; and learning these 
most people filled ? \ will strengthen the memory quite as i 

What should be the character of \ well. — Meaning of memorize? 
every thing, laid up in the memory? J 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 169 

therefore, to distinguish things aright, and to lay up nothing 
in the memory, but what has some just value in it, and is 
worthy to be numbered as a part of our treasure. 

Whatever improvements are to the mind of mem from the 
wise exercise of his own reasoning powers, these may be 
called his proper manufactures ;)and whatever he borrows 
from abroad, these may be termed his foreign treasures. ; ; 
Both together make a wealthy and happy mind. \ 

How many excellent judgments and reasonings are 
framed in the mind of a man of wisdom and study in a 
length of years ! How many worthy and admirable notions 
has he been possessed of in life, both by his own reasonings, 
and by his prudent and laborious collections in the course 
of his reading ! But, alas ! how many thousands of them 
vanish away, and are lost for want of a more retentive 
memory ! ) When a young practitioner in the law was once 
said to contest a point in debate with that great lawyer in 
the last age, Serjeant Maynard, he is reported to have an- 
swered him, "- Alas, young man, I have forgot much more 
law, than ever thou has learnt or read." 

What an unknown and unspeakable happiness would it 
be to a man of judgment, and who is engaged in the pur- 
suit of knowledge, if he had but a power of stamping all his 
own best sentiments upon his memorjr in some indelible 
characters ; and if he could but imprint every valuable 

Paragraph and sentiment of the most excellent authors he 
as read, upon his mind, with the same speed and facility, 
with which he read them ! If a man of good genius and sa- 
gacity could but retain and survey all those numerous, those 
wise and beautiful ideas at once, which have ever passed 
through his mind upon one subject, how admirably would 
he be furnished to pass a just judgment about all present 
objects and occurrences ! What a glorious entertainment 
and pleasure would fill and felicitate his spirit, if he could 

What may we denominate those \ acquisitions! By writing them 
improvements, that are derived from \ down, and reviewing them ; by con- 
our own reasoning powers? — what \ versing and meditating upon them ; 
we borrow 1 \ by putting them in practice ; and by 

What do large amounts of both \ avoiding, as far as possible, vain 
constitute 1 \ company, vain reading, vain actions 

For want of what, do a axeat part \ and vain thoughts. 
of a wise man's intellectual treas- \ Can you mention some of the 
ures vanish away 1 i happy consequences, that might re- 

What did Serjeant Maynard say \ suit from a wise man's being able to 
to a young lawyer 1 i retain all the excellent thoughts he 

How may we avoid forgetting and I ever acquired ? 
losing so many of our most valuable \ 

15 



170 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

grasp all these in a single survey, as the skilful eye of a 
painter runs over a fine and complicate piece of history, 
wrought by the hand of a Titian or a Raphael, views the 
whole scene at once, and feeds himself with the extensive 
delight ! But these are joys, which do not belong to mor- 
tality. 

Thus far I have indulged some loose and unconnected 
thoughts and remarks with regard to the different powers 
of wit, memory and judgment. For it was very difficult to 
throw them into a regular form or method, without more 
room. Let us now with more regularity, treat of the me- 
mory alone. 

Though the memory is a natural faculty of the mind of 
man, and belongs to spirits, which are not incarnate, yet it 
is greatly assisted or hindered, and much diversified by the 
brain or the animal nature, to which the soul is united in 
this present state. But what part of the brain that is, 
wherein the images of things* lie treasured up, is very hard 
for us to determine with certainty. It is most probable, 
that those very fibres, pores or traces of the brain, which assist 
at the first idea or perception of any object, are the same, 
which assist also at the recollection of it ; and -then it will 
follow, that the memory has no special part of the brain 
devoted to its own service, but uses all those parts in gen- 
eral, which subserve our sensations, as well as our thinking 
and reasoning powers. 

As the memory improves in young persons from their 
childhood, and decays in old a^e, so it may be increased by 
art and labor and proper exercise ; or it may be injured and 
quite spoiled by sloth or by disease or a stroke on the head. 
There are some reasonings on this subject, which make it evi- 
dent, that the goodness of a memory depends in a great de- 
gree upon the consistence and the temperament of that part 

With what bodily organ, does the i spoiled? 
memory appear to be particularly \ Are there any traces, forms or 
connected 1 — Where is the brain 1 ? images, drawn on the brain ? Pro- 
Is it probable, that any particular \ bably there are not. 
part of the brain is exclusively de- \ Ts the brain affected in any way, 
voted to the service of memory 1 \ when ideas are received or lost 1 ? 
Meaning of exclusively ? I It seems certain, that it is. 

At what period of life, does me- { How 1 Probably, no person will 
mory generally improve 1 — decay 1 \ ever know. 
How may memory be injured and \ 

* It is hardly to be supposed that Watts really thought, that the " images 
of things" are in fact delineated upon the brain. It seems most rational to 
suppose that he used such expressions figuratively. 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 171 

of the brain, which is appointed to assist the exercise of all 
our sensible and intellectual faculties. So for instance, 
in children ; they perceive and forget a hundred things in 
an hour. The brain is so soft, that it receives immediately 
all impressions, like water or liquid mud, and retains scarce- 
ly any of them. All the traces, forms or images, which are 
drawn there, are immediately effaced or closed up again, as . 
though you wrote with your finger on the surface ofa river, 
or on a vessel of oil. 

On the contrary, in old age, men have a very feeble 
remembrance of things, that were done of late, that is, 
the same day or week or year. The brain is grown so 
hard, that the present images or strokes make little or no 
impression ; and therefore, they immediately vanish. Prisco, 
in his seventy-eighth year, will tell long stories of things 
done when he was in the battle of the Boyne, almost fifty 
years ago, and when he studied at Oxford seven years before. 
JTor those impressions were made, when the brain was more 
susceptive. They have been deeply engraven at the pro- 
per season, and therefore, they remain. But words or 
things, which he lately spoke or did, are immediately for- 
gotten ; because the brain is now grown more dry and 
solid in its consistence, and receives not much more im- 
pression, than if you wrote with your finger on a floor of 
clay, or a plastered wall. 

But in the middle stage of life, or it may be, from fifteen to 
fifty years of age, the memory is generally in its happiest 
state ; the brain easily receives and long retains the images 
and traces, which are impressed upon it ; and the natural 
spirits are more active, to range these little infinite unknown 
figures of things in their proper cells or cavities, to preserve 
and recollect them. 

Whatever, therefore, keeps the brain in its best consist- 
ence, may be a help to preserve the memory. But excess 
of wine, or luxury of any kind, as well as excess in study or 
business, may overwhelm the memory, by overstraining and 
weakening the fibres of the brain, wasting the spirits, in- 
juring the consistence of that tender substance, and con- 
founding the images, that are laid up there. 

Why does Watts suppose chil- j range through the brain, to preserve' 
dren so soon gain and lose ideas ? j and recollect the images there 1 

Which are best remembered by \ Probably not. 
the aged, ideas gained recently, or { Why did Watts suppose their 
long ago 1 — Why ? I existence 1 It was agreeable to the 

Stage of life, when the memory is $ notion of his day. 
best/! I What excesses may impair the 

Are there any natural spirits, that \ memory ? 



572 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

A good memory has these several qualifications ; 1. It is 
ready to admit with great ease, the various ideas both of 
words and things, which are learned or taught. 2. It is 
large and copious, to treasure up these ideas in great 
number and variety. 3. It is strong and durable, to retain 
for a considerable time, those words or thoughts, which are 
committed to it. 4. It is faithful and active to suggest and 
recollect, upon every proper occasion, all those words or 
thoughts, which have been recommended to its care, or 
treasured up in it. 

Now in every one of these qualifications, a memory may 
be injured, or improved. Yet I shall not insist distinctly 
on these particulars, but only in general, propose a few 
rules or directions, whereby this noble faculty, may be 

E reserved or assisted, and shew, what are the practices, that 
oth by reason and experience, have been found of happy 
influence to this purpose. 

There is one great and general direction, which belongs 
to the improvement of other powers, as well as of the 
memory ; and that is, to keep it always in due and proper 
exercise. Many acts by degrees form a habit; and there- 
by the ability or power is strengthened, and made more 
ready to be again in action. Our memories should be used 
and inured from childhood, to bear a moderate quantity of 
knowledge, let into them early ; and they will thereby be- 
come strong for use and service. As any limb duly exer- 
cised, grows stronger, the nerves of the body are corrobo- 
rated thereby. Milo took up a calf, and daily carried it on 
his shoulders. As the calf grew, his strength grew also ; 
and he at last arrived at firmness enough to bear the ox. 

Our memories will be, in a^great measure, moulded and 
formed, improved or injured,/ according to the exercise of 
them. If we never use them, they will be almost lost. 
Those, who are wont to converse or read about a few things 
only, will retain but a few in their memory. Those who 
are used to remember things but for an hour, and charge 
their memories with it no longer, will retain them but an 

Four properties of a good memory ? \ ed from childhood 1 

By what adjectives, may these \ According to what, will our me- 
properties be expressed 1 Susceptive, \ mories be in a great measure mould- 
capacious, retentive and ready. \ ed. injured or improved 1 

In which of these, may memory I What if we scarcely ever use our 
be injured or improved 1 \ memories 1 

Grand direction for improving \ What if we charge our memories 
every faculty 1 { to remember things but for an hour? 



To what, should memory be inur- 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 173 

hour. Let "words be remembered, as well as things, that so 
you may acquire a copiousness of language, as well as of 
thought, and be more ready to express your mind on all 
occasions. 

Yet there should be a caution given in some cases. The 
memory of a child, or any infirm person, should not be over- 
burthened ; for a joint or a limb may be overstrained by 
being too much loaded, and its natural power never be 
recovered. Teachers should wisely judge of the power and 
constitution of youth, and impose no more on them, than 
they are able to bear with cheerfulness and improvement. 

And particularly they should take care, that the memory 
of the learner be not too much crowded with a tumultuous 
heap or overbearing multitude of documents or ideas at one 
time. This is the way to remember nothing. One idea 
effaces another. An over-greedy grasp does not retain the 
largest handful. But it is the exercise of memory with a 
due moderation, that is one general method toward its im- 
provement. 

The particular rules are such as these ; 

1. Due attention and diligence to understand things, 
whieh we would commit to memory, is a rule of great ne- 
cessity in this case. When the attention is strongly fixed 
to any particular subject, all that is said concerning it, 
makes a deeper impression upon the mind. There are 
some persons, who complain, they cannot remember divine 

Why should we remember words, i What kind of a school-book seems 
as well as things ? | to be most needed 1 A book to teach 

What other advantage will result \ the young child reading, spelling, 
from learning words in connection \ pronunciation and signification at 
with things % It will assist us to \ the same time, 
retain a knowledge of the things. j For what literary object might 

How does this furnish an argu- \ 10,000 dollars be most usefully De- 
ment in favor of having printed \ stowed? To reward the person who 
questions, adapted to school books'? \ should write the best book for this 
They will induce the pupil to com- j purpose. 

mit to memory most important j What caution does the author 
words and phrases. I give with regard to tasking the me- 

Which should we learn first, \ mory of a child, or any infirm per- 
things or their names ? It seems of \ son? 

little importance, which we learn j What is the utmost task that a 
first, provided we learn them very \ teacher should impose upon his pu- 
nearly together. \ pils ? 

Why should both be learned near- \ What if the memory be too much 
ly at the same time ? The name \ crowded 1 

and thing may often help to explain \ What is the first first rule for corn- 
each other. The knowledge of both | mitting to memory i 
is much more useful, and may be f Why cannot some remember dis- 
more easily remembered, than of one \ courses, that they hear 1 
alone. \ 

15* 



174 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

or human discourses, which they hear ; when in truth, their 
thoughts are wandering- half the time ; or they hear with 
such coldness and indifference, and a trifling temper of 
spirit, that it is no wonder, the things, which are read or 
spoken, make but a slight impression on the brain, and get 
no firm footing in the memory ; but soon vanish and are 
lost. 

It is needful, therefore, if we would maintain a long re- 
membrance of the things, which we read or hear, that we 
should engage our delight in those subjects, and use the 
methods, which are already prescribed, in order to fix the 
attention. Sloth and idleness will no more bless the mind 
with intellectual riches, than it will fill the hand with grain, 
the field with corn, or the purse with treasure. 

Let it be added also, that not only the slothful and the 
negligent deprive themselves of proper knowledge for the 
furniture of their memory, but such as appear to have active 
spirits, who are ever skimming over the surface of things 
with a volatile temper, will fix nothing in their mind. Vario 
will spend whole mornings in running over loose and un- 
connected pages, and with fresh curiosity, is ever glancing 
over new words and ideas, that strike his present fancy. 
He is fluttering over a thousand objects of art and science ; 
and yet treasures up but little knowledge. There must be 
the labor and the diligence of close attention to particular 
subjects of thought and inquiry, which only can impress 
what we read or think of upon the remembering faculty in 
man. 

2. Clear and distinct apprehension of the things, which 
we commit to memory, is necessary, in order to make them 
dwell there. If we would remember words, or learn the 
names of persons or things, we should have them recom- 
mended to our memory, by clear and distinct pronunciation, 
spelling or writing. If we would treasure up the ideas of 
things,"notions, propositions, arguments and sciences, these 
should be recommended also to our memory by a clear and 
distinct perception of them. Faint, glimmering and con- 
fused ideas will vanish, like images seen in twilight. Every 
thing, which we learn, should be conveyed to the mind in 
the plainest expressions, without any ambiguity, that we 
may not mistake, what we desire to remember. This is a 
general rule, whether we would employ the memory about 
words or things ; though it must be confest, that mere 

Second rule ! 

Effect of pronouncing or writing words, that we would learn ? 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 175 

sounds and words are much harder to fix in the mind, than 
the knowledge of things. ' 

For this reason, take heed, as I have often before warned 
you, that you do not take up with words instead of things, 
nor mere sounds, instead of sentiments and ideas. Many 
a lad forgets what has been taught him, merely because he 
never well understood it. He never clearly and distinctly 
took in the meaning of those sounds and syllables, which he 
was required to get by heart. 

This is one reason, why boys make so poor a proficiency 
in learning the Latin tongue, under masters, who teach 
them by grammars and rules written in Latin. And this is 
a common case with children, when they learn their cate- 
chisms in their early days. The language and the senti- 
ments, conveyed in. those catechisms, are far above the 
understanding of creatures of that age ; and they have no 
clear ideas from the words. This makes the answers much 
harder to be remembered, and in truth, they learn nothing 
but words without ideas ; and if they are ever so perfect in 
repeating the words, yet they know nothing of divinity. 

For this reason, it is necessary in teaching children the 
principles of religion, that they should be expressed in very 
plain, easy and familiar words, brought as low as possible, 
down to their understandings, according to their different 
ages and capacities ; and thereby they will obtain some 
useful knowledge, when the words are treasured up in their 
memory ; because at the same time, they will treasure up 
those divine ideas too. 

3. Method in the things we commit to memory, is neces- 
sary, in order to make them take more effectual possession 
of the mind, and abide there long. As much as system- 
atical learning is decried by some vain and humorous triflers 
of the age, it is certainly the happiest way to furnish the 
mind with a variety of knowledge. 

Whatever you would trust to your memory, let it be dis- 
posed in a proper method, connected well together, and 
referred to distinct and particular heads or classes, both 
general and particular. An apothecary's boy will much 

Whv has many a lad soon forgot- 5 duced into our schools 1 That chil- 
ten what he had been taught ? \ dren should be better instructed in 

Greatest improvement in schools, 5 religion, and made more fully to 
since the days of Watts 1 Children \ understand what they learn, 
are better taught to understand what I In what kind of language, should 
they learn. ] children be taught religion 1 

Two improvements, that now ? What does he recommend in the 
seem most desirable to be intro- \ third rule 1 



17(5 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

sooner learn all the medicines in his master's shop, when 
they are ranged in boxes or on shelves, according to their 
distinct natures, whether herbs, drugs or minerals, whether 
leaves or roots, whether chemical or galenical preparations, 
whether simple or compound, &c. and when they are placed 
in some order according to their nature, their fluidity, or 
their consistence, &c. in vials, bottles, gallipots, cases, 
drawers, &c. So the genealogy of a family is more easily 
learnt, when you begin at some great grandfather as the 
root, and distinguish the stock, the Targe boughs, the lesser, 
branches, the twigs and the buds, till you come down to 
the present infants of the house. And indeed ail sorts of 
arts and sciences, taught in a method, are more easily com- 
mitted to the mind or memory. 

I might give another plain simile, to confirm the truth of 
this. What horse or carriage can take up and bear away 
all the various, rude and unwieldy loppings of a branchy 
tree at once ? but if they are divided yet further, so as to 
be laid close, and bound up in a more uniform manner into 
several faggots, perhaps those loppings may be all carried 
as one single load or burden. 

The mutual dependance of things on each other, helps 
the memory of both. A wise connection of the parts of a 
discourse in a rational method, gives great advantage to 
the reader or hearer, in order to his remembrance of it. 
Therefore, many mathematical demonstrations in a long 
train, may be remembered much better, than a heap of sen- 
tences, which have no connection. The book of Proverbs, 
at least, from the tenth chapter and onward, is much harder 
to remember, than the book of Psalms, for this reason ; and 
some Christians have told me, that they remember what is 
written in the epistle to the Romans, and that to the He- 
brews, much better than many others of the sacred epistles ; 
because there is more exact method and connection ob- 
served in them. 

He,, that would learn to remember a sermon, which he 
hears, should acquaint himself by degrees with the method,^ 
in which the several important parts of it are delivered. 
It is a certain fault in a multitude of preachers, that they 
utterly neglect method ; or at least, they refuse to render 
their method visible and sensible to the hearers. One 



What effect upon the memory; has i What hint does he give for re- 
the mutual dependence of things'] { membering a sermon ? 

Why is the greater part of the I What does he mention as a fault 
book of Proverbs, hard to be remem- j in a multitude of preachers ? 
hexed ! \ 



of improving the memory. 177 

would be tempted to think, it was for fear their auditors 
should remember too much of their sermons, and prevent 
their preaching them three or four times over. But I have 
candor enough to persuade myself, that (the true reason is, 
they imagine it to be a more modish way of preaching with- 
out particulars^) I am sure it is a much more useless one. 
And it would be of great advantage both to the speaker 
and hearer, to have discourses for the pulpit cast into a 
plain and easy method, and the reasons or inferences ranged 
in proper order, and that under the words, first, secondly and 
thirdly, however they may be now fancied to soand un- 
polite or unfashionable. But archbishop Tillotson did not 
think so in his days. 

4. A frequent review and careful repetition of the things 
we would learn, and an abridgment of them in a narrow 
compass, has a great influence to fix them in the memory. 
Therefore, it is, that the rules of grammar and useful exam- 
ples of the variation of words, and the peculiar forms of 
speech in any language, are so often appointed by the 
masters, as lessons for the scholars, to be repeated ; and' 
they are contracted into tables for frequent review, that 
what is not fixed in the mind at first, may be stamped upon 
the memory, by a perpetual survey and rehearsal. 

Repetition is so very useful a practice, that Mnemon, 
even from his youth to his old age, never read a book with- 
out making some small points, dashes or hooks in the mar- 
gin, to mark, what parts of the discourse were proper for a 
review ; and when he came to the end of a section or chap- 
ter, he always shut his book, and recollected all the senti- 
ments or expressions, he had marked, so that he could give 
a tolerable analysis and abstract of every treatise he had 
read, just after he had finished it. Thence he became so 
well furnished with a rich variety of knowledge. 

Even when a person is hearing a sermon or a lecture, he 
may give his thoughts leave now and then to step back so 
far, as to recollect the several heads of it from the begin- 
Why does he suppose, they neg- \ back, in hearing a discourse? 
lect method 1 \ How may a preacher greatly assist 

Is it desirable, that a sermon \ his hearers, to remember what he 
should contain numerical divisions, \ says 1 By making a long pause be- 
expressed by first, second, third, Scc.l \ fore naming a new head 5 by men- 
— Why ? I tioning each head twice ; and by 

What does he recommend in the sometimes repeating the preceding 
fourth rule'? } heads. 

Mnemon's method of reading ? | Is it best to take notes, while we 
Effect of this method 1 \ are hearing a sermon? For some 

What liberty may we take to look \ very ready writers, it may be best. 



178 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

ning, two or three times, before it is finished. The omis- ■ 
sion or loss of a sentence or two among- the amplifications, , 
is richly compensated by preserving- in the mind the method i 
and order of the whole discourse, in the most important . 
branches of it. 

If we would fix in the memory the discourses we hear, or ■ 
what we design to speak, let us abstract them into brief 
compends and review them often. Lawyers and divines ! 
have need of such assistances. They write down short I 
notes or hints of the principal heads of what they desire to i 
commit to memory, in order to preach or plead. For such i 
abstracts and epitomes may be reviewed much sooner, andl 
the several amplifying- sentiments or sentences will be; 
more easily invented or recollected in their proper places. 
The art of short hand is of excellent use for this, as well as? 1 
other purposes. It must be acknowledged, that those whoi 
scarcely ever take a pen in their hands to write short notes - 
or hints of what they are to speak or learn, who never try/ 1 
to cast things into method, or to contract the survey of: 
them, in order to commit them to memory, need a double 
degree of power to retain and recollect what they read orr 
hear or intend to speak. 

Do not plunge yourself into other businesses or studies,, 
amusements or recreations, immediately after you have 
attended upon instruction, if you can avoid it. Get time, iff 
possible, to recollect the things you have heard, that they/ 
may not be washed all away from the mind by a torrent off' 
other occurrences or engagements, nor lost in the croud on 
clamor of other loud and importunate affairs. 

Talking- over the things, which you have read, with youri 

Best method of taking such notes? i to hearing a sermon ? Most devout- .- j 
Write enough of the doctrine or ] ly to apply it to our own consciences, , 
leading proposition, to be able to j to reprove and correct us. 
remember it ; and a word or two of \ What does he say of forming brief 
each head ; and sometimes, perhaps, I compends of what we would re \ 
note a very striking thought besides. { member 1 

Why not write as much as pos- | Meaning of compendl — of brief? 
sible at the time ? The effort of \ Is it best to learn the art of short 
writing will be likely to prevent all I hand 1 Probably not one persortn 
good impression of the truths de- \ among ten thousand will find itii 
livered. j worth so much to him, as it willl 

What should we do immediately \ cost, 
after attending on a sermon? Think J Why should we not plunge intot 
over the heads and substance of it, I business or amusements, immedi-i 
and endeavor to make it as profit- \ ately after attending upon instruc 
able to ourselves as possible, by self ! tion 1 
application, prayer, and perhaps by ! What does he say of conversing! 
writing the most striking parts. I upon what we learn 1 

^Most important duty in relation \ 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 179 

companions, on the first proper opportunity^ is a most use- 
ful manner of review or repetition, in order to fix them upon 
the mind."" Teach them to your younger friends, in order 
to establish your own knowledge, while you communicate 
it to them. The animal powers of your tongue and of your 
ear, as well as your intellectual faculties, will all join to 
[help the memory. Hermetas studied hard in a remote cor- 
ner of the land, and in solitude ; yet he became a very 
learned man. He seldom was sp happy, as to enjoy suitable 
Isociety at home, and thereforetne talked over to the fields 
and the woods, in the evening, '-what he had been reading 
in the day, and found so considerable advantage by this 
practice, that he recommended it to all his friends, since he 
sould set his approbation to it from 17 years' trial. 

5. Delight in the things we learn, gives great assistance 
toward the remembrance of them. : Whatever, therefore, 
we desire, a child should commit to memory, make it as 
pleasant to him, as possible ; endeavor to search his genius 
and his temper ; and let him take in the instructions you 
!>ive him, or the lesssons you appoint him, as far as may be, 
n a way suited to his natural inclinations. Fabellus would 
never learn any moral lesson, till they were moulded into 
he form of some fable, like those of Esop, or till they 
jut on the appearance of a parable^like those, wherein our 
alessed Savior taught the ignorant. Then he remembered 
well the emblematical instructions, that were given him, 
and learnt to practise the moral sense and meaning. Young 
Spectorius was taught virtue, by setting before him, a 
variety of examples of the various good qualities in human 
life ; and he was appointed daily to repeat some story of 
;his kind out of Valerius Maximus. The same lad was early 
instructed to avoid the common vices and follies of youth 
n the same manner. This is akin to the method, whereby 
:he Lacedemonians trained up their children to hate drunk- 

To what, did Hermetas talk over { of Fabellus be renounced 1 That 
what he had learned 1 \ we may study the rest of the Bible, 

Why is it much better to talk to a \ as well as the parables ; that we may 
living audience ? For their instruc- j become a patient, thorough scholar. 
tinn and our own, ' j How was Spectorius taught vir- 

Meaning of audience 1 | tue? 

What does he say of the pleasure I What book contains the best sto- 
)f learning, as it affects the memory ? 5 ries, to teach children virtue 1 The 

To. what, should we endeavor to i Bible. 
suit the instructions we give to a \ How did the Lacedemonians train 
ihild 1 . \ up their children, to hate drunken- 

What was the only form, in which \ ness 1 — Was this right 1 [See Kom 
Fabellus would learn moral lessons ? 5 3: 8. J 

Why should the fabulous humor | 



180 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

enness and intemperance, namely,. "'by bringing a drunken 
man into their company, and showing them, what a beast ; 
he had made of himself. \ Such visible and sensible forms 
of instruction, will make long and useful impressions upon 
the memory. 

Children may be taught to remember many things in a , 
way of sport and play. • Some young creatures have learnt ; 
their letters and syllables, and the pronouncing and spell- 
ing of words, by having them pasted or written°upon many 
little flat tablets or dies. Some have been taught vocabu- 
laries of different languages, having a word in one tongue i 
written on one side of these tablets, and the same word in i 
another tongue on the other side of them. 

There might be also many entertaining contrivances for : 
the instruction of children in several things relating to i 
geometry, geography and astronomy, in such alluring me- 
thods, which would make a most agreeable and lasting im- 
pression on their minds. 

6. *f he memory of useful things may receive considera- • 
ble aid, if they are thrown into verse, j For the numbers 
and measures and rhyme, according to the poesy of differ- 
ent languages, have a considerable influence upon man- 
kind, both to make them receive with more ease, the things ! 
proposed to their observation, and preserve them longer in i 
their remembrance. How many are there of the common t 
affairs of life, which have been taught in early years by the 
help of rhyme, and have been like nails, fastened in a sure i 
place, and rivetted, by daily use ? 

So the number of the days of each month is engraven oni 
the memory of thousands, by these four lines ; 

Thirty days hath September, 
April, June, and November ; 
February, twenty-eight alone ; 
And all the rest have thirty-one. 

Who may be taught to remember I many infant schools? That the ! 

many things, by way of sport and { children will consider their exercises i 

play ? I play and sport. 

Why should not children be taught \ Present state of infant schools 1 ! 

every tiling in this way ? They j They seem to be yet in their in- - 

should be taught to feel, that God I fancy. 

did not make them to spend their i What may we hope from infant t 
lives in play, but to endure hard- \ schools? That they will be among i 
ness, as good soldiers of Jesus 5 the chief means of so raising man- 
Christ. \ kind, as to make them appear like I 

Why should they be trained up, \ another race of beings. 

thus to endure hardness ? This is ? What does Watts say of verse, in i 

the way, in which they should go, \ relation to memory ? 

that they may fight the good fight \ Repeat the lines that may enable I 

of faith. Prov. 29:8. 1 Tim. 6:12. J you to remember the number of da>s < 

What danger is* thought to attend \ in each month. 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 181 

So have rules of health been prescribed in the book 
called Schola Salernitana : and many a person has pre- 
served himself doubtless from evening gluttony, and the 
pains and diseases consequent upon it, Dy these two lines 

Ex magna cmna, stomacho Jit maxima pcsna / 

Ut sis node levis,fit tibi uena brevis. / 

Englished ; 

To be easy all night, 
Let your supper be light; 
Or else you'll complain 
Of a stomach in pain. 

And a hundred proverbial sentences in various lan- 
guages, are formed into rhyme or verse, whereby they are 
made to remain in the memory of old and young. 

It is from this principle, that moral rules have been cast 
into a poetic mould, from all antiquity. So the golden 
verses of the Pythagoreans, in Greek ; Cato's distichs De 
Moribus, in Latin ; Lilly's precepts to scholars, called Qui 
mihi, with many others ; and this has been done with very 
good success. A line or two of this kind recurring to the 
memory, has often guarded youth from a temptation to 
vice and folly, as well as put them in mind of their present 
duty. 

7. When you would remember new things or words, 
endeavor to /associate them with some words or things, 
which you have well known before, and which are estab- 
lished in your memory.\ This association of ideas is of 
great importance, and mfay be of excellent use in many in- 
stances of human life. One idea, which is familiar to the 
mind, connected with others which are new and strange, 
will bring those new ideas into easy remembrance. Ma- 
ronides had got the first hundred lines of Virgil's Enead 
printed upon his memory so perfectly, that he knew not 
only the order and number of every verse from one to a 
hundred, but the order and number of every word in each 
verse also ; and by this means, he would remember two or 
three hundred names of persons or things by some rational 
or fantastic connection between some word in the verse, 
and some letter, syllable, property or accident of the name 
or thing to be remembered, even though they had been 
repeated but once or twice in his hearing. Animato prac- 
tised much the same art of memory, by getting the Latin 

If we would remember new words or tilings, with what, should we 
associate them? 

* 16 



J82 OF IMPROVING THE MEMOE.Y. 

names of twenty-two animals into his head, according to 
the alphabet, namely, asinus, basilicus, canis, draco, elepnas, 
felis, gryphus, hircus, juvencus, leo, mulus, noctua, ovis, 
panthera, quadrupes, rhinoceros, simia, taurus, ursus, xiphi- 
as, hyena or yena, zibetta. Most of these he divided also 
into four parts, namely, head and body, feet fins, or wings, 
and tail ; and by some arbitary or chimerical attachment of 
each of these to a word or thing, which he desired to re- 
member, he committed them to the care of his memory,", 
and that with good success. 

It is also by this association of ideas, that we may better 
imprint any new idea upon the memory, by joining with it, , 
some circumstance of the time, place, company, &c. where- • 
in we first observed, heard or learnt it. |lf we would re- 
cover an absent idea, it is. useful to recollect those circum- 
stances of time, place, &c.V The substance will many times : 
be recovered, and brought to the thoughts by recollecting 
the shadow. A man recurs to our fancy by remembering ; 
his garment, his size or stature, his office or employment, , 
&c. A beast, bird or fish by its color, figure, or motion, by 
the cage or court-yard or cistern, wherein it was kept. 

To this head, also we may refer that remembrance of 
names and things, which may be derived from our recol- ■ 
lection of their likeness to otlier things, which we know ; ; 
either their resemblance in the name, character, form, ac- 
cident or any thing that belongs to them. An idea or word, , 
which has been lost or forgotten, has been often recovered I 
by hitting upon some other kindred word or idea, which has ! 
the nearest resemblance to it, and that in the letters, sylla- 
bles or sound of the name, as well as properties of the thing. 

If we would remember Hippocrates or Galen or Para- 
celsus, think of a physician's name, beginning with H. G. 
or P. If we would remember Ovidius Naso,' we may repre- 
sent a man with a great nose ; if Plato, we may think upon i 
a person with large shoulders ; if Crispus, we may fancy ' 
another with curled hair ; and so of other things. 

And sometimes a new or strange idea may be fixed ini 
the memory, by considering its contrary or opposite. So if " 
we cannot hit on the word Goliath, the remembrance of ' 
David may recover it; or the name of a Trojan may be; 
recovered by thinking of a Greek, &c. 

8. In such cases, wherein it may be done, seek after a i 

How may we often recover an { and contraries, in relation to me- 
absent idea 1 \ mory 1 

What does he say of resemblances \ What is meant by a local memory ? : 



OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 183 

local memory, or a remembrance of what you had read by 
the side or page, where it is written or printed ; whether 
the right or the left, whether at the top, the middle or the 
bottom ; whether at the beginning of a chapter or a para- 
graph, or the end of it It has been some advantage for 
this reason to accustom ourselves to books of the same 
edition ; and it has been of constant and special use to 
divines and private Christians, to be furnished with several 
Bibles of the same edition ; that wherever they are, whether 
in their chamber, parlor or study, in the younger or elder 
years of life, they jhiay find the chapters and verses stand- 
ing^ in the same parts of the page. 

This is also a great convenience to be observed by 
printers in the new editions of Grammars, Psalms, Testa- 
ments, &c. to print every chapter, paragraph or verse in 
the same part of the page, as the former, that so it may 
yield a happy assistance to those young learners, who find, 
and even feel the advantage of a local memory. 

9. Let every thing we desire to remember be fairly and 
distinctly written, and divided into periods, with large cha- 
racters ; for by this means, we shall the more readily im- 
print the matter and words on our minds, and recollect 
them with a glance, the more remarkable the writing ap- 
pears to the eye. This sense conveys the ideas to the 
fancy better than any other ; and what we have seen is not 
so soon forgotten, as what we have only heard. 

For the assistance of weak memories, the first letters or 
words of every period, in every page, may be written in 
distinct colors, yellow, green, red, black, &c. and if you 
observe the same order of colors in the following sentences, 
it may be still the better. This will make a greater im- 
pression, and may much aid the memory. 

Under this head, we may take notice of the advantage, 
which the memory gains, by having the several objects of 
our learning drawn out into schemes and tables. Matters 

Meaning of local? t may be convenient, always to use 

What advantage may arise from \ the same copy of the Scripture ? 

always reading the same Bible, or \ Do you think of any other method, 

same edition ? \ to aid remembrance ? 

What disadvantage 1 We shall \ What is thought to be the best 

Ibe more likely to make, the same ^ method, to aid us in remembering 

mistakes in successive readings. \ dates 1 Grey's Memoria Technica, 

Is it best on the whole, as far as } or Artificial Memory.* 

* An account of this method with improvements, may be found in recent 
■editions of Whelpley's Compend of History, and in Worcester's Elements 
of History. 



184 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 

of mathematical science and natural philosophy are not only- 
let into the understanding, but preserved in the memory by 
figures and diagrams. The situation of the several parts of 
the earth are better learnt by one day's conversing with a 
map, or sea-chart, than by merely reading the description of 
their situation a hundred times over in books of geography. 
So the constellations in astronomy, and their position in the 
heavens, are more easily remembered by hemispheres of 
the stars well drawn. It is by having such memorials, 
figures and tablets hung round our studies or places of 
resort, that our memory of these things will be greatly 
assisted and improved, as I have shewn at large in the 
twentieth chapter of the Use of the Sciences. 

I might add here also, that once writing over what we 
design to remember, and giving due attention to what we 
write, will fix it more in the mind, than reading it five times. 
And in the same manner, if we had a plan of the naked 
lines of longitude and latitude, projected on the meridian 
printed for this use, a learner might much more speedily 
advance himself in the knowledge of geography by his own 
drawing the figures of all the parts of the world upon it by 
imitation, than by many days survey of a map of the world 
so printed. The same also may be said concerning the 
constellations of the heavens, drawn by the learner, on a 
naked projection of the circles of the spheres upon the 
plane of the equator. 

10. It has sometimes been the practice of men to imprint 
names or sentences on their memory, by taking the first 
letters of every word of that sentence or of those names, 
and making a new word out of them. So the name Macca- 
bees is borrowed from the first letters of the Hebrew words 
which make that sentence Mi Camoka Bealim Jehovah, 
that is, Who is like thee among the gods, O Jehovah ? which 
was Written on their banners. So the word vihgyor teaches 
us to remember the order of the seven original colors, as 
they appear by the sun-beams, cast through a prism on a 
white paper, or formed by the sun in a rainbow, according 
to the different refrangibility of the rays, namely, violet, 
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. 

Other artificial helps to memory may be just mentioned 
here. 

Dr. Grey in his book call Memoria Technica, has ex- 
changed the figures 1, 2,3, 4,5,6, 7,8,9, for some con- 
sonants, 6, d, t, f, Z, y, p, k, n, and some vowels, a, e, i, o u, 
and several diphthongs, and thereby formed words, that 



OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 185 

denote numbers, which may be more easily remembered. 
Mr. Lowe has improved his scheme in a small pamphlet 
called Mnemonics Delineated, whereby in seven leaves, he 
has comprized almost an infinity of things in science and in 
common life, and reduced them to a sort of measure, like 
Latin verse ; though the words may be supposed to be very 
barbarous, being such a mixture of vowels and consonants, 
as are very unfit for harmony. 

But after all, the very writers on this subject have con- 
fessed, that several of these artificial helps of memory are 
so cumbersome, as not to be suitable to every temper or 
person; nor are they of any use for the delivery of a dis- 
course by memory, nor of much service in learning the 
sciences ; but they may be sometimes practised for assist- 
ing our remembrance of certain sentences, numbers or 
names. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

I. When a subject is proposed to your thoughts, con- 
sider, whether it be knowable at all, or not, and then, 
whether it be not above the reach of your inquiry and 
knowledge in the present state ; and remember, that it is a 
great waste of time to busy yourselves too much among 
unsearchables. The chief object of these studies is to keep 
the mind humble, by finding its own ignorance and weak- 
ness. 

II. Consider again, whether the matter be worthy of 
your inquiry at all ; and then, how far it may be worthy of 
your present search and labor, according to your age, your 
time of life, your station in the world, your capacity, your 
profession, your chief design and end. There are many 
things, worthy inquiry to one man, which are not so to 
another ; and there are things, that may deserve the study 
of the same person in one part of life, which would be im- 
proper or impertinent at another. To read books on the art 

When a question is proposed for I little attention to unsearchables 1— 

determination, what should we first | Meaning of unsearchable? 

consider ? i If we find we can probably deter- 

Meaning of knowdblel \ mine the point, what farther in- 

What may be the use of paying a \ quires should we then make 1 
16* 



186 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

of preaching, or disputes about church discipline, are pro- 
per for a theological student, in the end of his academical 
studies, but not at the beginning. To pursue mathematical 
studies very largely may be useful for a professor of phi- 
losophy, but not for a divine. 

III. Consider, whether the subject of your inquiry be 
easy or difficult ; whether you have sufficient foundation or 
skill, furniture and advantages for pursuing it. It would 
be madness for a young statuary to attempt at first, to carve 
a Venus or a Mercury, and especially without proper tools. 
And it is equal folly for a man to pretend to make great 
improvements in natural philosophy, without due experi- 
ments. 

IV. Consider, whether the subject be in any way, use- 
ful or not, before you engage in the study of it. Often put 
this question to yourselves, Cui bono ? To what purpose ? 
What end will it attain ? Is it for the glory of God ? for 
the good of men ? for your own advantage ? for the removal 
of any natural or moral evil ? for the attainment of any 
natural or moral good ? Will the profit be equal to the 
labor? There are many subtle impertinencies learnt in the 
schools, many painful trifles even among the mathematical 
theorems and problems, many laborious follies of various 
kinds, which some ingenious men have been engaged in. 
A due reflection upon these, will call the mind away from 
vain amusements, and save much time. 

V. Consider, what tendency it has to make you wiser 
and better, as well as to make you more learned. Those 
questions, which tend to wisdom and prudence in our con- 
duct among men, as well as piety toward God, are doubt- 
less more important, than all those inquiries, which only 
improve our knowledge in mere speculations. 

VI. If the question appears to be well worth your dili- 
gent application, and you are furnished with the necessary 
requisites to pursue it, then consider, whether it be drest 
up and entangled in more words, than are needful, and con- 
tain or include more complicated ideas, than are necessary. 
If so, endeavor to reduce it to a greater simplicity and 
plainness ; which will make the inquiry and argument easier 
and plainer all the way. 

Vil. If it be stated in an improper, obscure or irregular 

If the subject appears worthy of I What if the question contains 
our attention, what should we next j needless words and ideas'! 
inquue i \ What if it is obscure 1 

Next inqiliry ? \ 



Or DETERMINING A QUESTION. 187 

form, it may be meliorated by changing the phrase, or 
transposing the parts. But be careful always to keep the 
grand and important point of inquiry the same in your new 
stating of the question. Little tricks and deceits of sophis- 
try, by sliding in, or leaving out, such words as entirely 
change the question, should be abandoned. 

Stating a question with clearness and correctness, often 
goes a great way toward answering it. The greatest part 
of true knowledge lies in a distinct perception of things, 
which are in themselves distinct ; and some men give more 
light and knowledge by the bare stating of the question, 
than others do, by talking of it in gross confusion, for whole 
hours together. To state a question is but to separate and 
disentangle the parts from one another, as well as from 
every thing, which does not concern the question, and then 
to lay the disentangled parts of the question in due order 
and method. Oftentimes without more ado, this fully re- 
solves the doubt, and shews the mind, where the truth lies, 
without argument or dispute. 

VIII. If the question relate to an axiom or first principle 
of truth, remember, that a long train of consequences may 
depend upon it. It should therefore, not be suddenly ad- 
mitted. 

It is not enough to determine the truth of a proposition, 
much less to raise it to the honor of an axiom or first prin- 
ciple, to say, that it has been believed through many ages, 
that it has been received by many nations, that it is almost 
universally acknowledged, or nobody denies it, that it is 
established by human laws, or that temporal penalties or 
reproaches will attend the disbelief of it. 

IX. Nor is it enough to forbid any proposition the title 
of an axiom, because it has been denied by some persons, 
and doubted by others ; for some persons have been un- 
reasonably sceptical. Then only should a proposition be 
called an axiom, or a self-evident truth, when by a moderate 
attention to the subject and predicate, their connection ap- 
pears in so plain a light, and so clear an evidence, as needs 
no third idea or middle term, to prove them to be connected. 

X. While you are in search after truth in questions of a 
doubtful nature, or such as you have not yet thoroughly 

To what, does the clear statement ? to entitle a proposition to be regard- 
of the question very much conduce ? j ed as an axiom ? 

What if the question relates to an \ To exclude it 1 
axiom 1— Meaning of axiom? I What should we most ardently 

What is mentioned as insufficient \ desire in our investigations 1 



188 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

examined, keep up a just indifference to each side of the 
question, if you would be led honestly into the truth ; for a 
desire or inclination leaning to either side, biasses the 
judgment strangely. Whereas by this indifference for 
every thing but truth, you will be excited to examine fairly, 
instead of presuming ; and your assent will be secured from 
going beyond your evidence. 

XI. For the most part, people are born to their opinions, 
and never question the truth of what their family or their 
party profess. They clothe their minds, as they do their 
bodies, after the fashion ; not one of a hundred ever exam- 
ines his principles. We shall be suspected of lukewarm- 
ness, if we suppose examination necessary ; and be charged 
as tending to apostacy, if we attempt to examine them. 
Persons are applauded for presuming, they are in the right ; 
and, as Mr. Locke says, he that considers and inquires into 
the reasons of things, is counted a foe to orthodoxy ; be- 
cause possibly he may deviate from some of the received 
doctrines. And thus men without any industry or acquisi- 
tion of their OAvn, lazy and idle as they are, inherit local 
truths, that is, the truths of that place, where they live, and 
are inured to assent without evidence. 

This has a long and unhappy influence ; for if a man 
bring his mind once to be positive and fierce for proposi- 
tions, whose evidence he has never examined, and that in 
matters of the greatest concernment, he will naturally fol- 
low this short and easy way of judging and believing in 
cases of less moment, and build all his opinions upon in- 
sufficient grounds. 

XII. In determining a question, especially when it is a 
matter of difficulty and importance, do not take up with 
partial examination ; but turn your thoughts on all sides to 
gather in all the light you can, toward the solution. Take 
time, and use all the helps that are to be obtained, before 
you fully determine, except only where present necessity 
of action calls for speedy determination. 

If you would know what may be called a partial exami- 
nation, take these instances, namely, 
When you examine an object of sense, or inquire into 

How do most people come by their i portant question, how should we 
opinions ? j generally proceed 1 

If a person considers and inquires i When must we proceed other- 
into the reason of tilings, to what is \ wise? 
lae sometimes considered as a foe 1 I Can you mention some instances 

In determining a difficult and im- j of imperfect examination 1 



OF DETEE.MINING A QUESTION. / 189 

some matter of sensation at too great a distance from the 
Object, or in an inconvenient situation of it, or under any 
indisposition of the organs, or any disguise whatsoever re- 
lating to the medium or the organ of the object itself; or 
when you examine it by one sense only, where others 
might be employed ; or when you inquire into it by sense 
only, without the use of the understanding and judgment 
and reason. 

If it be a question which is to be determined by reason 
and argument, than your examination is partial, when you 
turn the question only in one light, and do not turn it on all 
sides ; when you look upon it only in its relations and as- 
pects to one sort of object and not to another; when you 
consider only the advantages of it and the reasons for it, 
and neglect to think of the reasons against it, and never 
survey its inconveniencies too ; when you determine on a 
sudden, before you have given yourself a due time for 
weighing all circumstances, &c. 

Again, If it be a question of fact, depending up the re- 
port or testimony of men, your examination is but partial, 
when you inquire only, what o*ie man or a few say, and 
avoid the testimony of others ; when you only ask, what 
those report, who were not eye or ear- witnesses, and neglect 
those, who saw and heard it ; when you content yourself with 
mere loose and general talk about it, and never enter into 
particulars ; or when there are many who deny the fact, 
and 1 you never concern yourself about their reasons for 
denying it, but resolve to believe only those who affirm it. 

There is yet a further fault in your partial examination 
of any question, when you resolve to determine it by natural 
reason only, where you might be assisted by revelation ; 
or when you decide the point by some word or sentence, 
or by some part of revelation, without comparing it with 
other parts, which might give further light, and better help 
to determine the meaning. 

It is also a culpable partiality, if you examine some 
doubtful or pretended vision or revelation, without the use 
of reason; or without the use of that revelation, which is 
undoubted, and sufficiently proved to be divine. These 
are all instances of imperfect examination ; and we should 
never determine a question by one or two lights, when we 
may have the advantage of three or four. 

i What caution does he give, re- X Meaning of hypotheses? 
specting favorite hypotheses 1 \ 



190 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

XIII. Take heed lest some darling notion, some favorite 
hypothesis, some beloved doctrine, or some common but 
unexamined opinion, be made a test of the truth or false- 
hood of all other propositions about the same subject. Dare 
not build much upon such a notion or doctrine, till it be 
very fully examined, accurately adjusted, and sufficiently 
confirmed. Some persons, by indulging such a practice, 
have- been led into long ranks of errors ; they have found 
themselves involved in a train of mistakes, by taking up 
some petty hypothesis or principle, either in philosophy, 
politics or religion, upon slight and insufficient grounds, and 
establishing that as a test and rule, by whichto judge of 
all other things. 

XIV. For the same reason, have a care of suddenly 
determining any one question, on which, the determination 
of any kindrea or parallel cases will easily or naturally 
follow. Take heed of receiving any wrong turn in your 
early judgment of things; be watchful, as far as possible, 
against any false bias, which may be given to the under- 
standing, especially in younger years. The indulgence of 
some one silly opinion, or the giving credit to one foolish 
fable, lays the mind open to be imposed upon by many. 
The ancient Romans were taught to believe that Romulus 
and Remus, the founders of their state and empire, were ex- 
posed in the woods, and nursed by a wolf. This story pre- 
pared their minds for the reception of any tales of the like 
nature relating to other countries. Trogus Pompeius 
would enforce the belief, that one of the ancient kings of 
Spain was also nursed and suckled by a hart, from the fable 
of Romulus and Remus. It was by the same influence, 
they learned to give up their hopes and fears to omens and 
sooth-saying, when they were once persuaded, that the 
greatness of their empire and the glory of Romulus their 
founder, were predicted by the happy omen of twelve vul- 
tures appearing to him, when he sought where, to build the 
city. They readily received all the following legends of 
prodigies, auguries and prognostics, for many ages together, 
with which tivy has furnished his huge history. 

Into what, have some been led by \ Romans believe respecting Romulus 

indulging such a practice 1 \ and Remus? 

What questions should we be par- \ For what, did this story prepare 

ticularly cautious in determining? ] their minds 1 

In what stage of life, should per- 1 How did the Romans learn to give 

pons be especially cautious of wrong \ up their hopes and fears to omens ? 

hias3es 1 I — Meaning of anen 

What fabulous account did the \ 



OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 191 

So the child, who is once taught to believe any one oc- 
currence to be a good or evil omen, or any day of the month 
or Aveek to be lucky or unlucky, has a wide inroad made on 
the soundness of his understanding in the following judg- 
ments of his life. He lies ever open to all the silly impres- 
sions and idle tales of nurses ; and imbibes many a foolish 
story with greediness, which he must unlearn, if ever he 
become acquainted with truth and wisdom. 

XV. Have a care of interesting your warm and religious 
zeal in those matters, which are not sufficiently evident in 
themselves, or which are not fully proved ; for this zeal, 
whether right or wrong, when it is once engaged, will have 
a powerful influence to establish your own minds in those 
doctrines which are really doubtful, and to stop up all the 
avenues of further light. This will bring upon the soul a 
sort of sacred awe and dread of heresy ; with a concern to 
maintain whatever you have espoused as divine, though 
perhaps you have espoused it, without any just evidence, 
and ought to have renounced it, as false and pernicious. 

We ought to be zealous for the most important points 
of our religion, and to contend earnestly for the faith once 
delivered to the saints ; but we ought not to employ this 
sacred fervor of spirit in the service of any article, till we 
have seen it made out with plain and strong conviction. 

If a child has been taught to be- S &c. what must lie do, in order to 
lieve in omens, or in lucky or un- I become truly wise 1 
lucky days, on what has this made a \ How can he unlearn them ? By 
wide inroad '! — Meaning of inroad? \ learning, that they are mere fictions. 
— of luck? — of lucky ? j For what points, does he say, we 

Of the words hick and lucky, \ should not indulge religious zeal 1 
which is the primitive word 1 — the ? What will such zeal tend to pre- 
derivative? \ vent 1 

Meaning of primitive 7 — of deriva- i What sacred awe and dread will 
live ? I it be likely to bring upon the soul 1 

What important idea is implied \ For what points, should we be 
in luckiji that is not implied in luck ? { zealous 1 

Can you think of any other de- ^ For what, should we earnestly 
rivative, essentially different in 5 contend 1 

meaning, from its "English primi- i Meaning of. faith here 1 The doc- 
tive 1* | trines of the bible, believed by 

First inference contained in the { faith, 
note'? — Second 1 \ What caution does he give, with 

If a child believes in lucky da3's, \ regard to this sacred fervor? 

* English words generally differ, and often very greatly, from their primi- 
tives of other languages. Hence, we can scarcely ever know the exact 
meaning of an English word, by knowing its derivation from another lan- 
guage. Hence too, persons sometimes use English words improperly, by 
adhering too closely to their etymological signification ; as the phrase averse 
from; instead of '-averse to. 



192 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

that it is a necessary or important point of faith or practice, 
and is either an evident dictate of the light of nature, or an 
assured article of revelation. Zeal must not reign over the 
powers of our understanding, but obey them. God is the 
God of light and truth, a God of reason and order, and he : 
never requires mankind to use their natural faculties amiss i 
for the support of his cause. Even the most mysterious i 
and sublime doctrines of revelation, are not to be believed! 
without just reason; nor should our pious affections be: 
engaged in the defence of them, till we have plain and! 
convincing proof, that they are certainly revealed, though 
perhaps we may never in this world attain to such clean 
and distinct ideas of them, as we desire. 

XVI. As a warm zeal ought never to be employed in 
the defence of any revealed truth, till our reason be well 
convinced of the revelation ; so neither should wit and 
banter, jest and ridicule, ever be indulged to oppose or 
assault any doctrines of professed revelation, till reason 
has proved, they are not really revealed. And even then,' 
these methods should be used very seldom, and with the 
utmost caution and prudence. Raillery and wit were never 
made to answer our inquiries after truth, nor to determine* 
a question of rational controversy ; though they may some- 
times be serviceable to expose to contempt, those incon- 
sistent follies, which have been first abundantly refuted by 
argument. They serve indeed only to cover nonsense with 
shame, when reason has first proved it to be mere nonsense. 

It is therefore a silly and most unreasonable test, which 
some of our Deists have introduced, to judge of divine rei 
velation, namely, to try, if it will bear ridicule and laughten 
They are effectually beaten in all their combats at the* 
weapons of men, that is, reason and argument ; and it would 
not be unjust, though it is a little uncourtly, to say, that 
they would now attack our religion with the talents of a 
vile animal, that is, grin and grimace. 

I cannot think that a jester or a monkey, a droll or a pup-i 
pet, can be a proper judge or decider of controversy.'; Thati 
which dresses up all things in disguise, is not likely' to lead 
us into any just sentiments about them. Plato or Socrates, 
Cesar or Alexander, might have a fool's coat clapt upori 



Should zeal govern or obey the i unreasonably considered as the teSli 

understanding 1 \ of truth 1 — Meaning of test? 

From what discussions, should 5 Who, does he say, are not propeii 

wit and banter be excluded '] I deciders of controversy ? 

What have some infidels most \ 



OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 193 

him; and perhaps in this disguise, neither the wisdom of 
the one, nor the majesty of the other, would secure him 
from a sneer. This treatment would never inform us, 
whether they were kipgs or slaves, whether they were 
fools or philosophers. fThe strongest reasoning, the best 
sense and the politest thoughts may be set in a most 
ridiculous light by this grinning faculty.^- The most obvious 
axioms of eternal truth may be drest in a very foolish form, 
and wrapt up in artful absurdities by this talent ; but they 
are truth and reason and good sense still. Euclid, with.all 
his demonstrations, might be so covered and overwhelmed 
with banter, that a beginner in the mathematics might be 
tempted to doubt, whether his theorems were true or not, 
and to imagine, they could never be useful. So weaker 
minds might be easily prejudiced against the noblest prin- 
ciple of truth and goodness ; and the younger part of man- 
kind might be beat off from the belief of the most serious, 
the most rational and important points even of natural reli- * 
gion, by the impudent jests of a profane wit. The moral 
duties of the civil life, as well as the articles of Christianity, 
may be painted over with the colors of folly, and exposed 
upon a stage, so as to ruin all social and personal virtue 
among the gay and thoughtless part of the world. 

XVII. It should be observed also, that these very men 
cry out loudly against the use of all severe railing and re- 
proach in debates, and all penalties and persecutions of the 
state, in order to convince the minds and consciences of 
men, and determine points of truth and error.*: Now I re- 
nounce these penal and smarting methods of conviction, as 
much as they do ; and yet I think still, these are every whit 
as wise, as just and as good for this purpose, as- banter and 
ridicule. ■ Why should public mockery in print, or a merry 
joke upon a stage, be a better test of truth, than severe 
railing, sarcasms, and public persecutions and penalties ? 
Why should more light be derived to the understanding, 
by a song of scurrilous mirth or a witty ballad, than there 
is by a rude cudgel ? When a professor of any religion is 
set up to be laughed at, I cannot see, how this should help 

By what faculty, may the strong- \ that ridicule may sometimes be used 
est reasoning and most excellent \ in such cases 1 Answer a fool ac- 
thoughts be set in a most ridiculous \ cording to his folly. 
light 1 \ Against what method of convic- 

Should ridicule ever be used in \ tion, do infidels loudly exclaim ? 
discussions? Rarely, and never in \ What method of theirs appears to 
opposition to argument. \ be no better 1 

What scripture seems to imply, 5 

17 



194 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

us to judge of the truth of his faith any better, than if he 
were scourged. The jeers of a theatre, the pillory and the 
whipping-post, are very near akin. "When the person or 
his opinion is made the jest of the mob, or his back the 
shambles of the executioner, I think, there is no more con- 
viction in the one, that in the other. 

XVIII. Besides, supposing it is but barely possible, that 
the great God should reveal his mind and will to men by 
miracle, vision or inspiration, it is a piece of contempt and" 
profane insolence, to treat any tolerable or rational appear- 
ance of such a revelation with jest and laughter, in order to 
find, whether it be divine or not. And yet, if this be a pro- 
per test of revelation, it may be properly applied to the 
true, as well as the false, in order to distinguish it. Sup- 
pose, a royal proclamation were sent to a distant part of 
the kingdom, and some of the subjects should doubt whether 
it came from the king or not. Is it possible, that wit and 
ridicule should ever decide the point ? or would the prince 
ever think himself treated with just honor, to have his 
proclamation canvassed in this manner, on a public stage^ 
and become the sport of buffoons, in order to determine the 
question, Whether it is the word of a king or not ? 

Let such sort of writers go on at their peril, and sport 
themselves in their own deceivings ; let them at their peril, 
make a jest of the Bible, and treat the, sacred articles of 
Christianity with scoff and merriment. "But then let them 
lay aside all their pretences to reason, as well as to reli- 
gion ; and as they expose themselves by such writings, to 
the neglect and contempt of men, so let them prepare to 
meet the majesty and indignation of God. 

XIX. In reading philosophical, moral or religious con- 
troversies, never raise your esteem of any opinion, by the 
assurance and zeal, wherewith the author asserts it, nor by 
the hio-hest praises, he bestows upon it. Nor on the other 
hand, let your esteem of an opinion be abated, nor your 
aversion to it raised, by the supercillious contempt, cast 
upon it by a warm writer, nor by the sovereign airs, with 
which he condemns it. (^ Let the force of argument alone 
influence your assent or dissent. Take care, that your 
soul be not warped or biassed on one side or the other, by 
any strains of flattering or abusive language ; for there is 

To what, should scoffers at the 5 praise or blame cast upon it 1 

Bible, lay aside all pretence ? \ Only thing, that should influence 

How should our opinion of any \ our assent or dissent.! 

work be affected by the very high j 



OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 195 

no question whatsoever, but has some defenders or op- 
posers. Leave those writers to their own follies, who prac- 
tise thus upon the weakness of their readers, without argu- 
ment. Leave them to triumph in their own fancied pos- 
sessions and victories. It is oftentimes found, that their 
possessions are but a heap of errors, and their boasted vic- 
tories are but overbearing noise and clamor, to silence the 
voice of truth. 

In philosophy and religion, f the bigots of all parties are 
generally the most positive, ) and deal much in this sort of 
arguments. Sometimes these are the weapons of pride ; 
for a haughty man supposes all his opinions to be infallible, 
and imagines, the contrary sentiments are very ridiculous, 
and not worthy of notice. Sometimes these ways of talk- 
ing are the mere arms of ignorance. The men, who use 
them, know little of the opposite side of the question, and 
therefore, they exult in their own vain pretences to knowl- 
edge, as though no man of sense could oppose their opin- 
ion. They rail at an objection against their own senti- 
ments ; because they can find no other answer to it but 
railing.; And men of learning, by their excessive vanity, 
have been sometimes tempted into the same insolent prac- 
tice, as well as the ignorant. 

Yet let it be remembered too, that there are some truths 
eo plain and evident, that the opposition to them is strange, 
unaccountable, and almost monstrous. In vindication of 
such truths, a writer of good sense may sometimes be 
allowed to use a degree of assurance, and pronounce them 
strongly with an air of confidence, while he defends them 
with reasons of convincing force. 

XX. Sometimes a question may be proposed, which is 
of so large and extensive a nature, and refers to such 
a multitude of subjects, as ought not injustice to be deter- 
mined at once by a single argument or answer ; as if one 
should ask me, Are you a professed disciple of the Stoics 
or the Platonists ? Do you give an assent to the principles 

What characters are generally \ whether we are Calvinists, Armini- 

most positive in matters of piiiloeo- \ ans, &c. ? 

phy and religion 1 \ What if we have not time to enter 

Meaning of bigot? \ into a detail of particulars! We 

Why do many rail at an objection \ may say, that in general, we agree 

to their sentiments 1 \ with Calvin or Arminius, or other 

When may a writer of good sense \ writers, but not in all particulars, 

be allowed to use some degree of \ according as truth may allow us to 

assurance 1 i state. 

What Bhall we say, if asked 



196 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION* 

ofGassendi, Descartes or Sir Isaac Newton ? Have you 
chosen the hypothesis of Tycho or Copernicus ? Have you 
devoted yourself to the sentiments of Arminius or Calvin? 
Are your notions Episcopal, Presbyterian or Independent ? 
I think it may be very proper in such cases, not to give 
an answer in the gross, but rather to enter into a detail 
of particulars, and explain one's own sentiments. Perhaps 
there is no man, nor set of men upon earth, whose senti- 
ments I entirely follow, j God has given me reason, to 
judge for myself; and though I may see sufficient ground 
to agree with the greatest part of the opinions of one per- 
son or party, yet it does by no means follow, that I should 
receive them all. Truth does not always go in the gross : 
nor does error tincture and spoil all the articles of belief, 
that some one party professes. 

Since there are difficulties attending every scheme of 
human knowledge, it is enough for me in the main, to in- 
cline to that side, which has the fewest difficulties ; and I 
would endeavor, as far as possible, to correct the mistakes 
or the harsh expressions of one party, by softening and 
reconciling methods, by reducing the extremes, and by 
borrowing some of the best principles or phrases from 
another. Cicero was one of the greatest men of antiquity, 
and gives us an account of the various opinions of philoso- 
phers in his age ; but he himself was of the Eclectic sect, 
and chose out of each of them such positions, as in his 
judgment came nearest to the truth. 

XXI. When you are called in the course of life or re- 
ligion, to judge and determine concerning any question, 
and to affirm or deny it, take a full survey, of the objections 
against it, as well as of tne arguments for it, as far as your 
time and circumstances admit, and see, on which side, the 
preponderation falls. If either the objections against, any 
proposition, or the arguments for the defence of it, carry in 
them most undoubted evidence, and are plainly unanswera- 
ble, they will and ought to constrain the assent, though 
there may be many seeming probabilities on the other side, 
which at first sight, would flatter the judgment to favor it. 
But where the reasons on both sides, are very nearly of 
equal weight, there suspension or doubt is our duty, unless 

What does Watts say respecting l incline ? 

his own sentiments 1 \ When we are called to decide a 

For what, had God given him \ question, what should we consider, 

reason 1 \ besides the arguments in favor'! 

As there are difficulties in every | What if the reasons appear equal 

scheme, to which side, should we \ on both sides ? 



OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 197 

in cases wherein present determination or practice, is re- 
quired ; and there we must act according to the present 
appearing preponderation of reasons. 

XXII. In matters of importance, it is our duty indeed to 
seek after certain and conclusive arguments, if they can be 
found, in order to determine a question. But where the 
matter is of little consequence, it is not worth our labor, to 
spend much time in seeking after certainties. Is it suffi- 
cient here, if probable reasons offer themselves. And 
even in matters of greater importance, especially where 
daily practice is necessary, and where we cannot attain any 
sufficient or certain grounds, to determine a question, we 
must then take up with such probable arguments, as we 
can arrive at. But this general rule should be observed, 
namely, to take heed, that our assent be no stronger, than 
the probable argument will support. 

XXIII. There are many things even in religion, as well 
as in philosophy and the civil life, which we believe with 
very different degrees of assent ; and this should be always 
regulated according to the different degrees of evidence, 
which we enjoy. Perhaps there are a thousand gradations 
in our assent to the things we believe ; because there are 
thousands of circumstances relating to different questions, 
which increase or diminish the evidence we have concern- 
ing them, and that in matters both of reason and revelation. 

I believe, there is a God, and that obedience is due to 
him from every reasonable creature. Of this, I am most 
fully assured, because I have the strongest evidence, since 
it is the plain dictate both of reason and revelation. 

Again, I believe, there will be a future resurrection of 
the dead ; because scripture tells us so in the plainest 
terms, though reason says nothing of it. I believe also, 
that the same matter of our bodies, which died, in part at 
least, will rise. But I am not so fully assured of this cir- 
cumstance ; because the revelation of it is not so clear and 
express. Yet further, 1 believe, that good men, who were 
acquainted here on earth, will know each other in heaven. 
But my persuasion of it is not absolutely certain ; because 
my assent to it arises only from circumstantial reasonings 
of men upon what God has told us ; and therefore, my evi- 
dences are not strong, beyond a possibility of mistake. 

What if we must act immediately ? I degrees' of assent 1 ? 

In proportion to what, should al- ] What does reason say respecting 

ways be our assent? \ the resurrection of the body 1 

Why may there be a great many \ 

17* 



198 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

This direction cannot be too often repeated, that our assent 
ought always to keep pace with our .evidenceVand our 
belief of any proposition, should never rise higher, than the 
proof or evidence we have, to support it ; nor should our 
faith run faster, than right reason can encourage it. 

XXIV. Perhaps it will be objected here, " Why then 
does our Savior, in the histories of the gospel, so much 
commend a strong faith, and lay out both his miraculous 
benefits and his praises upon some of those poor creatures 
of little reasoning, who profest an assured belief of his 
commission and power to heal them ?" 

I answer, the God of nature has given every man his own 
reason, to judge of evidence to himself in particular, and to 
direct his assent in all things, about which he is called to 
judge ; and even the matters of revelation are to be be- 
lieved by us, because our reason pronounces the revelation 
to be true. Therefore, the great God will not, or cannot 
in any instance, require us to assent to any thing, without 
reasonable or sufficient evidence ; nor to believe any 
proposition more strongly, than our evidence for it will 
support. We have, therefore, abundant ground to be- 
lieve, that those persons, of whom our Savior requires 
such a strong faith, or whom he commends for their strong 
faith, had as strong and certain evidence of his power and 
commission, from the credible and incontestable reports 
they had heard of his miracles ; which were wrought, on 
purpose to give evidence to his commission. When our 
Savior gently reproves Thomas for his unbelief, in John 20 : 
29, he does it in these words; "Because thou hast seen 
me, Thomas, thou hast believed ; blessed are they, who 
have not seen, and yet have believed ;" that is, blessed are 
they, who, though they have not been favored with the 
evidence of their senses, as thou hast been, yet have been 
convinced by the reasonable and sufficient moral evidence 
of the well-grounded report of others, and have believed in 
me upon that evidence. Of this moral evidence, Mr. Ditton 
writes exceedingly well, in his book on the Resurrection 
of Christ. Now in such a case, both this strong faith and 
the open profession of it were very worthy of public en- 

What direction concerning assent \ est evidence, that Christ was able to 
can hardly be too often repeated 1 j heal. 

Of whom, did our Savior require \ For what purpose, has God given 
strong faith? Those whom he would { reason to every man 1 
heal. \ Why are matters of revelation to 

What reason was there for such \ be believed ? 
requirement 1 There was the full- \ 



OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 199 

couragement and praise from our Saviour, because of the 
great and public opposition, which the magistrates and the 
priests and the doctors of the age made against Jesus, the 
man of Nazareth, when he appeared as the Messiah. 

And besides all this, it may be reasonably supposed, with 
regard to some of those strong exercises of faith, which are 
required and commended, that these believers had some 
further hints of inward evidence and immediate revelation 
from God himself; as when Peter confesses Christ to be 
the Son of God, Matth. 16 : 17, our blessed Savior com- 
mends him, saying, "Blessed art thou Simon Bar-jona;" 
but he adds, " flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto 
thee, but my Father, who is in heaven." 

And the same may be said concerning the faith of mira- 
cles, the exercise whereof was sometimes required of the 
disciples and others, that is, when by inward and divine 
influences, God assured them, such miracles should be 
wrought, their obedience to and compliance with these 
divine illuminations was expected and commended. Now 
this supernatural inspiration, carried sufficient evidence 
with it to them, as well as to the ancient prophets, though 
we who never felt it are not so capable to judge and dis- 
tinguish it. 

XXV. What is said above concerning truth or doctrines, 
may be also affirmed concerning duties. The reason of 
both is the same. As the first are truths for our specula- 
tion, the others are truths for our practice. Duties, which 
are expressly required in the plain language of scripture, 
or dictated by the most evident reasoning upon first prin- 
ciples, ought to bind our consciences more than those, 
which are but dubiously inferred, and that only from oc- 
casional occurrences, and circumstances ; as for instance, I 
am certain, that I ought to pray to God. My conscience is 
bound to this, because there are most evident commands 
for it to be found in scripture, as well as to be derived from 
reason. I believe also, that I may pray to God, either by a 
written form, or without one ; because neither reason nor 
revelation expressly requires either of these modes of 
prayer at all times, nor forbids the other. I cannot, there- 
fore, bind my conscience to practise the one, so as utterly 
to renounce the other ; but I would practise either of them, 
as my reason and other circumstances direct me. 

What does Watts say of written forms of prayer, and of extemporane- 
ous prayer 1 



200 OP DETERMINING A QUESTION. 

Again, I believe, that Christians ought to remember the 
death of Christ, by the symbols of bread and wine ; and I 
believe, there ought to be pastors in a Christian church, 
some way ordained or set apart to lead the worship, and to 
bless and distribute the elements. But the last of these 
practices is not so expressly directed, prescribed and re- 
quired in scripture, as the former ; and therefore, I feel my 
conscience evidently bound to remember the death of 
Christ with some society of Christians or other, since it 
is a most plain command, though their method of ordaining 
a pastor be very different from other men's, or from my 
own opinion ; or whether the person, who distributes these 
elements, be only an occasional or a settled administrator,; 
since none of these things are plainly determined in scrip- 
ture. I must not omit or neglect an express command, 
because some unnecessary circumstances are dubious. And 
I trust, I shall receive approbation from the God of nature, 
and from Jesus my judge at the last day, if I have en- 
deavored in this manner to believe and practise every thing, 
in proportion to the degree of evidence, which God has 
given me about it, or which he has put me into a capacity 
to seek and obtain. 

Query. Whether the obstinate Deists and Fatalists of 
Great Britain will find sufficient apology from this princi- 
ple ? But I leave them to venture the awful experiment. 

XXVI. We may observe these three rules in judging of 

firobabilities, which are to be determined by reason, re- 
aring either to things past, or things to come. 

1. That, which agrees most with the constitution of 
nature, carries the greatest probability in it, where no other 
circumstance appears to counterpoise it ; as, if I let loose a 
greyhound within sight of a hare upon a large plain, there 
is great probability the greyhound wiM seize her ; and that 
a thousand sparrows will fly away at the sight of a hawk 
among them. 

2. That, which is most conformable to the constant ob- 
servations of men, or to experiments frequently repeated, 
is most likely to be true ; as that a winter will not pass 
away in England without some frost and snow ; that if you 
deal out great quantities of strong liquor to the mob, there 
will be many drunk ; that a large assembly of men will be 
of different opinions on any doubtful point ; that a thief will 
make his escape out of prison, if the doors of it are un- 
guarded at midnight. 

First rule for judging of probabilities 1 Second rule 1 



OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 201 

3. In matters of fact, which are past or present, where 
neither nature nor observation nor custom gives us any 
sufficient information on either side of the question, there 
we may derive a probability from the attestation of wise 
and honest men by word or writing, or the concurring wit- 
ness of multitudes, who have seen and known what they 
relate, &c. This testimony in many cases will arise to the 
degree of moral certainty. ' So we believe, that the tea 
plant grows in China ; and that the enrperor of the Turks 
lives at Constantinople ; that Julius Cesar conquered France, 
and that Jesus our Savior lived and died in Judea ; that 
thousands were converted to the Christian faith in a cen- 
tury after the death of Christ ; and that the books, which 
contain the Christian religion, are certain histories and 
epistles, which were Avritten nearly two thousand years 
ago. There is an infinite variety of such propositions, 
wnich can admit of no reasonable doubt, though they are 
not matters, which are directly evident to our own senses, 
or our mere reasoning powers. 

XXVII. When a point has been well examined, and our 
own judgment settled upon just arguments in our manly 
age, and after a large survey of the merits of the cause, it 
would be a weakness for us always to continue flattering in 
suspense. We ought, therefore, to stand firm in such well 
established principles, and not be tempted to change for the 
sake of every difficulty, or every occasional objection. We 
are not to be carried about with every flying doctrine, like 
children tossed to and fro, and wavering with the wind. It 
is a good thing to have the heart established with grace, 
not with meats ; that is, in the great doctrines of the gospel 
of grace and in Jesus Christ, who is the same yesterday, 
to day and forever. But it is not so necessary in the more 
minute matters of religion, such as meats and drinks, forms 
and ceremonies, which are of less importance, and for 
which, scripture has not given such express directions. 
This is the advice of the great apostle, Eph. 4 : 14. Heb. 
13 : 8, 9. 

In short, those truths, which are the springs of daily 
practice, should be settled, as soon as we can with the 
exercise of our best powers, after the state of manhood. 
But those things, wherein we may possibly mistake, should 

Third rule, when neither nature \ When would it be a weakness in 
nor observation gives us any suffi- \ us, to feel in suspense respecting 
cient information 1 \ our opinion ? 

To what, does probability from j What of truths, relating to daily 
testimony often rise ? \ practice 1 



IZOfe OF INQUIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 

never be so absolutely and finally established, as though 
we were infallible. If the Papists of Great Britain had 
maintained such a resolute establishment and assurance in 
the days of king Henry VIII, or queen Elizabeth, there 
never had been a reformation ; nor would any Heathen 
have been converted even under the ministry of Paul, if their 
obstinate settlement in their idolatries had. kept their eyes 
shut against all further light. Yet this should not hinder 
us from settling our most important principles of faith and 
practice, where reason shines with its clearest evidence ; 
and the word of God plainly determines truth and duty. 

XXVII. But let us remember also, that though the gos- 
pel is an infallible revelation, we are but fallible interpre- 
ters, when we determine the sense even of some important, 
propositions written there ; and therefore, though we seem 
to be established in the belief of any particular sense of 
scripture, and though there may be just calls of providence 
to profess and subscribe it, yet there is no need, that we 
should resolve or promise, subscribe or swear never to 
change our mind ; since it is possible in the nature and 
course of things, we may meet with such a solid and sub- 
stantial objection, as may give us a quite different view of 
things from what we once imagined, and may lay before us 
sufficient evidence of the contrary. We may happen to 
find a fairer light cast over the same scriptures, and see 
reason to alter our sentiments even in some points of mo- 
ment. Sic sentio, sentiam, that is, So I believe, and so I toill 
believe, is the prison of the soul for life, and a bar against all 
the improvements of the mind. To impose such a profes- 
sion on other men in matters not absolutely necessary, and 
not absolutely certain,' is a criminal usurpation and tyranny 
over faith and conscience, ; and which none has power to 
require but an infallible dictator. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

OF INQUIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 

Some effects are found out by their causes ; and some 
causes, by their effects. Let us consider both these. 
I. When we are inquiring into the causes of any par- 
Why should we not promise never 5 tion, So I believe, and so I vrill believe? 
to change our opinion 1 I What is it to impose such a pro- 

What does he say of the declara- \ fession on others ? 



OF INQUIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 203 

ticular effect or appearance, either in the world of nature, 
in the civil or moral concerns of men, we may follow this 
method ; 

1. Consider, what effects or appearances you have known 
of a kindred nature, and what have been the certain and 
real causes of them. For like effects have generally like 
causes, especially, when they are found in the same sort of 
subjects. 

2. Consider, what are the several possible causes, which 
may produce such an effect ; and find out by some circum- 
stances, how many of those possible causes are excluded 
in this particular cause. Thence proceed by degrees, to 
the probable causes, till a more close attention and inspec- 
tion shall exclude some of them also, and lead you gradual- 
ly to the real and certain cause. 

3. Consider, what things preceded such an event or ap- 
pearance, which might have any influence upon it; and 
though we cannot certainly determine the cause of any 
thing merely from its going before the effect, yet among 
the many forerunners, we may probably light upon the true 
cause, by further and more particular inquiry. 

4. Consider, whether one cause be sufficient to produce 
the effect, or whether it does not require a concurrence of 
several causes ; and then endeavor, as far as possible, to 
adjust the degrees of influence, that each cause might have 
in 'producing the effect, and the proper agency and influence 
of each. 

So *in natural philosophy, if I would find, what are the 
principles or causes of that sensation, which we call heat, 
when I stand near the fire ; here I shall find it is necessary, 
that there be an agency of the particles of fire on my flesh, 
either mediately by themselves, or at least by the interme- 
diate air ; there must be a particular sort of motion and 
vellication imprest upon my nerves ; there must be a com- 
munication of that motion to the brain ; and there must be 
an attention of my soul to this motion. If either of these is 
wanting, the sensation of heat will not be produced. 

So in the moral world, if I inquire into the revolution of a 
state or kingdom, perhaps I find it brought about by the 
tyranny or folly of a prince, or by the disaffection of his 

In ascertaining the causes of ef- i ' Fourth thing to be considered ? 
fects, wlnir, is the first thing to be \ Can you mention some of the 
considered 1 \ causes, that may produce the revolu- 

Second thing to be considered 1 \ tion of a kingdom? 

Third thing to be considered 1 \ 



204 OF INQUIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 

own subjects ; and this disaffection and opposition may 
arise, either on account of impositions in religion, or in- 
juries relating to their civil rights ; or the revolution may 
be effected by the invasion of a foreign army, or by the 
opposition of some person at home or abroad, that lays 
claim to the government, &c. or a hero, who would guard 
the liberties of the people ; or by many of these concurring 
together. Then we must adjust the influences of each, as J 
wisely as we can, and not ascribe the whole event to one 
alone. 

II. When we are inquiring into the effects of any particu- 
lar cause or causes, we may follow this method ; 

1. Consider diligently the nature of every cause apart, 
and observe, what effect every part or property of it will 
tend to produce. 

2. Consider the causes united together in their several 
natures, and ways of operation ; inquire how far the powers 
or properties of one will hinder or promote the effects of 
the other, and wisely balance the proportions of the influ- 
ence. 

3. Consider, what the subject is, upon which the cause is : 
to operate ; for the same cause on different subjects will i 
often produce different effects, as the sun, which softens - 
wax, will harden clay. 

4. Be frequent and diligent in making all proper experi- - 
ments, in setting such causes at work, whose effects you i 
desire to know, and putting together in an orderly manner, 
such things, as are most likely to produce som'e useful] 
effects, according to the best survey you can take of all the I 
concurring causes and circumstances. 

5. Observe carefully all the events, which happen either r 
by an occasional concurrence of various causes, or by the 
industrious application of knowing men ; and when you see 
any happy effect certainly produced and often repeated,, 
treasure it up, together with its known causes, among your 
improvements. 

6. Take a just survey of all the circumstances, which j 
attend the operation of any cause or causes, whereby any/ 
special effect is produced, and iind out, as far as possible,!. 
how far any of those circumstances had a tendency either 
to obstruct or promote or change those operations, and con- 
sequently, how far the effect might be influenced by them. 



When we are inquiring into the \ What does he recommend in the* 

effects of causes, what is the first f fourth place 1 

thing to be considered!— the second ? 5 Do you recollect any other par-i 

— the third ? \ ticulars under this general head ? 



OF INQUIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 205 

In this manner, physicians practise, and improve their 
skill. They consider the various known effects of particu- 
lar herbs or drugs ; they consider, what will be the effect 
of their composition, and whether the virtues of the one 
will exalt or diminish the force of the other, or correct any 
of its noxious qualities. Then they observe the native 
constitution, and the present temper or circumstances of 
the patient, and what is likely to be the effect of such a 
medicine on such a patient. And in all uncommon cases, 
they make wise and cautious experiments, and nicely ob- 
serve the effects of particular compound medicines on dif- 
ferent constitutions, and in different diseases ; and by these 
treasures of just observation, they grow up to an honorable 
degree of skill in the art of healing. 

So the preacher considers the doctrines and reasons, the 
precepts, the promises and threatenings of the word of God, 
and what are the natural effects of them upon the mind ; he 
considers, what is the natural tendency of such a virtue or • 
vice ; he is well apprised, that the representation of some 
of these things may convince the understanding, some may 
terrify the conscience, some may allure the slothful, and 
some encourage the desponding. He observes the temper 
of his hearers, or of any particular person that converses 
with him about things sacred, and he judges, what will be 
the effects of each representation on such persons. He 
reviews and recollects, what have been the effects of some 
special parts and methods of his ministry ; and by a careful 
survey of all these, he attains greater degrees of skill in 
his sacred employment. 

Note, In all these cases, we must distinguish those 
causes and effects, which are naturally and necessarily con- 
nected with each other, from those, which have only an 
accidental or contingent connection. Even in those causes, 
where the effect is but contingent, we may sometimes 
arrive at a very high degree of probability ; yet we cannot 
arrive at such certainty, as where the causes operate by an 
evident and natural necessity, and the effects necessarily 
follow the operation. x 

See more on this subject, Logic Part II. Chap. V. Sect. 
7. " Of the principles and rules of judging concerning 
things past, present and to come, by the mere use of reason. 

In what manner, do physicians I that a preacher should consider, 

reason in relation to their patients 1 | when he would produce an effect 

Meaning of patients, as here used? ? upon his hearers? 

What do physicians sometimes do j What, does Watts say, we must 

in uncommon cases .^ I distinguish in all these cases'? 

(Jan you mention some things, I 

18 



206 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 



CHAPTER XX. 

OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE IN PARTICULAR 
PROFESSIONS. 

I. The best way to learn any science, is to begin with a 
regular system, or a short and plain scheme of that science, 
well drawn up into a narrow compass, omitting the deeper 
and more abstruse parts, and that also under the conduct 
and instruction of some skilful teacher. Systems are neces- 
sary to give an entire and comprehensive view of the 
several parts of any science, which may have a mutual 
influence toward the' explication or proof of each other ; 
whereas if a man deals always and only in essays and dis- 
courses on particular parts of a science, he will never ob- 
tain a distinct and just idea of the whole, and may perhaps 
omit some important part of it, after seven years reading of; 
such occasional discourses. 

For this reason, young students should apply themselves- 
to their systems much more than to pamphlets. That man 
is never so fit to judge of particular subjects relating to any\ 
science, who has never taken a survey of the whole. 

It is a remark of an ingenious writer, " Should a barba- 
rous Indian, who had never seen a palace or a ship, view* 
their separate and disjointed parts, and observe the pillars, 
doors, windows, cornices and turrets of the one, or the prow\ 
and stern, the ribs and masts, the ropes and shrouds, the* 
sails and tackle of the other, he would be able to form buti 
a very lame and dark idea of either of those excellent and\ 
useful inventions. In like manner, those, who contemplate' 
only the fragments or pieces broken oif from any science, 1 
dispersed in short unconnected discourses, and do not disl 
cern their relation to each other, and how they may bef 
adapted, and by their union, procure the delightful sym-i 

With what, should we begin, if I essays upon particular parts of as 
we would learn any science? \ science 1 

What parts should we at first, \ Of what, must we take a survey,, 
omit? \ in order to judge of any part of a> 

Why are systems necessary 1 I science ? 

What if a person attends only to \ 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 207 

metry of a regular scheme, can never survey an entire body 
of truth, but must always view it as deformed and dismem- 
bered ; while their ideas, which must be ever indistinct, 
and often repugnant, will lie in the brain unsorted, and 
thrown together without order or coherence. Such is the 
knowledge of those men, who live upon the scraps of the 
sciences. 

A youth of genius and lively imagination, of an active 
and forward spirit, may form within himself, some alluring 
scenes and pleasing schemes in the beginning of a science, 
which are utterly inconsistent with some of the necessary 
and substantial parts of it, which appear in the middle or 
end. And if he never read and pass through the whole, he 
takes up and is satisfied with his own hasty, pleasing 
schemes, and treasures up those errors among his solid 
acquisitions ; whereas his own labor and study farther pur- 
sued would have shewn him his early mistakes, and cured 
him of his self- flattering delusions." 

Hence it comes to pass, that we have so many half 
scholars, and there is so much confusion and inconsistency 
in the notions and opinions of some persons. It is because 
they devote their hours of study entirely to short essays 
and pamphlets, and cast contempt upon systems under a 
pretence of greater politeness ; whereas the true reason of 
this contempt of systematical learning, is mere laziness and 
want of judgment. 

II. After we have become well acquainted with a short 
system or compendium of a science, which is written in the 
plainest and most simple manner, it is then proper to read 
a larger, regular treatise on that subject, if we design a 
complete knowledge and cultivation of it; -and either while 
we are reading this larger system, or after we have done it, 
then occasional discourses and essays upon the particular 
subjects and parts of that science may be read with the 
greatest profit ; for in these essays we may often find very 
considerable corrections and improvements of what these 
compends, or even the larger systems may have taught ua, 
mingled with some mistakes. 

These corrections or improvements should be as re- 

Why have we so many half schol- \ essays ? 

arsl \ What may we expect to find in 

Why do they despise systematic \ these essays 1 

learning? \ What social exercise is peculiarly 

What shall we next do, after \ useful in learning a science? Much 

learning a short compendium 1 I conversation with superiors, infe- 

When should we read occasional \ riors and eauals. 



208 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 



marks, adjoined by way of note or commentary in their 
proper places, and superadded to the regular treatise we 
have read. Then a studious and judicious review of the 
whole, will give us a tolerable acquaintance with that 
science. 

III. It is a great happiness to have such a tutor, or such 
friends and companions at hand, who are able to inform us, 
what are the best books, written on any science, or any 
part of it. For want of this advantage, many a man has 
wasted his time in reading over perhaps some whole vol- 
umes, and learnt little more by it, than to know, that those 
volumes were not worth his reading. 

IV. As for the languages, they are certainly best learned 
in the younger years of life. The memory is then most 
empty and unfurnished, and ready to receive new ideas 
continually. We find that children in two year's time after 
they are born, learn to speak their native tongue. 

V. The more abstract sciences, which depend more upon 
the understanding and judgment, and which deal much in 
abstract ideas, should not be imposed upon children too 
soon. Such are logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, or the 



Grand advantage of conversing 
with superiors 1 — with equals 1 It 
allows us the most favorable oppor- 
tunity for discussion, and free con- 
versation. 

Advantage of such discussion 1 It 
is an exercise, most invigorating to 
the mind, and peculiarly calculated 
to increase and familiarize our ac- 
quaintance with the subject. 

Advantage of conversing with in- 
feriors? It is peculiarly fitted to 
give us a clear, distinct and familiar 
view of the first principles ; and 
must always gives us new ideas 
upon the subject. 

When does Watts think the best 
time for learning languages? — Why ? 

What seems much more impor- 
tant for children, than loading their 
memories with languages ? To teach 
them their own language, to teach 
them the Bible, the history of their 
own country, and of others, most 
intimately connected, &c. &c. 

Why is it very important for chil- 
dren to attend to these things 1 
Deeply to impress them upon their 
tender minds, to improve their facul- 
ties, and to prepare them for use- 
fulness and for heaven. 



When should they attend to other 
languages? At a later period, if 
they have a prospect of finding them 
particularly useful. 

Why do many wish to learn, or to 
have their children learn, other lan- 
guages ? More perhaps for the name 
of it, than for any thing else? 

What is often the effect of trying 
to learn languages and a multitude 
of other branches ? Nothing is learnt 
well. 

Caution respecting the study of 
the deep sciences 1 

When may children learn some- 
thing of the rudiments of these sci- 
ences? Very young. 

How soon does a child begin to 
reason, or to practise logic 1 As 
soon as he can speak- 

How soon does he know some- 
thing about mathematics 1 As soon 
as he knows the meaning of tne 
word one. 

How soon does be know some- 
thing about metaphysics ? As soon 
as he knows the meaning of any 
such words, aspuiii, ache, glad, sorry, 
can. &.C. 

What is the way to make a child 
very great in these sciences? To 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 209 

depth and difficulties of grammar and criticism. Yet it 
must be confessed, the first rudiments of grammar are 
necessary, and very convenient to be known, when a youth 
learns a new language ; and some general easy principles 
and rules of morality and divinity are needful, in order to 
teach a child his duty to God and man. But to enter far 
into abstract reasonings on these subjects, is beyond the 
capacity of children. 

VI. There are several of the sciences, that will more 
agreeably employ our younger years, and the general parts 
of them may be easily known by boys ; as the first princi- 
ples and easier practices of arithmetic, geometry, plain 
trigonometry, measuring heights, depths, lengths, distances, 
&c. The rudiments of geometry and astronomy, together 
with something of mechanics, may be easily conveyed into 
the minds of acute young persons, nine or ten years old. 
These studies may be entertaining and useful to young 
ladies, as well. as to gentlemen, and to all those, who are 
bred up to the learned professions. The fair sex may in- 
termingle those with the operations of the needle, and the 
knowledge of domestic life. Boys may be taught to join 
them with their rudiments of grammar, and their labor in 
the languages. And even those, who never learn any lan- 
guage, but their mother-tongue, may be taught these sci- 
ences, with lasting benefit in early days. 

That this may be done with ease and advantage, take , 
these three reasons ; 

1. Because they depend so much upon schemes and 
numbers, images, lines and figures and sensible things, that 
the imagination or fancy will greatly assist the understand- 
ing, and render the knowledge of them much more easy. 

2. These studies are so pleasant, that they will make 
the dry labor of learning words, phrases and languages 
more tolerable to boys in a Latin school, by this most agree- 
able mixture. The employment of youth in these studies 
will tempt them to neglect many of the foolish plays of 
childhood ; and they will find sweeter entertainment for 
themselves and their leisure hours by a cultivation of these 
pretty pieces of alluring knowledge. 

3. The knowledge of these parts of science is both easy 

begin with him very young, to teach \ children 9 or 10 years old. 

him such parts, as he can clearly ] With what other pursuits, may 

understand, and let him gradually j females unite these studies ? 

advance to the more difficult parts. 1 What useless operations may these 

Mention some of the studies, that \ studies induce children to neglect? 
Watts thinks, may be pursued by \ 
18* 



210 OF TMfi SCIENCES, AND THEIR USEi 

and worthy to be retained in memory, by all children, when 
they come to manly years ; for they are useful through all 
the parts of human life.") They" tend to" enlarge the under- 
standing early, and t<5 give a various acquaintance with 
useful subjects betimes. And surely it is best, as far 
as possible, /to train up children in the knowledge of those 
things, which they should never forget, rather than to let 
them waste years of life on trifles, or hard words, which are 
not worth remembering. 

And here by the way, I cannot but wonder, that any 
author in our age should attempt to teach any of the ex- 
ploded physics of Descartes, or the nobler inventions of 
Sir Isaac Newton in his hypothesis of the heavenly bodies 
and their motions, in his doctrine of light and colors, and 
other parts of his physiology, or to instruct children in the 
knowledge of the theory of the heavens, earth and planets,' 
without any figures or diagrams. Is it possible to give a 
boy or a young la(9y, the clear, distinct and proper appre- 
hensions of these things, without lines and figures to de- 
scribe them ? Does not their understanding want the aid 
of fancy and images, to convey stronger and juster ideas of 
them to the inmost soul ? Or do they imagine, that yor.th 
can penetrate into all these beauties and artifices of nature, 
without those helps, which persons of maturer age find 
necessary for that purpose ? I would not willingly name 
the books ; because some of the writers are said to be gen- 
tlemen of excellent acquirements. 

VII. After we have first learnt any of those arts or 
sciences, which are to be explained by diagrams, figures 
and schemes, such as geometry, geography, astronomy, 
optics, mechanics, &C. we may best preserve them in me- 
mory, by having those schemes and figures in large sheets 
of paper, hanging always before the eye in closets, parlors, 
halls, chambers, entries, staircases, &c. Thus the learned 
images will be perpetually imprest on the brain, and will 
keep the learning, that depends upon them alive and fresh 
in the mind, through the growing years of life. The mere 
diagrams and figures will ever recall to our thoughts those 
theorems, problems and corollaries, which have been de- 
monstrated by them. 

When is a knowledge of these \ useful ? In studies relating to visi- 

branches useful ? j ble objects. 

In the knowledge of what things, S Meaning of diagram? — of visible? 

should children be trained up 1 5 Easiest method of preserving a 

In what studies, are diagrams and \ knowledge of those branches? 

other visible representations very { 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. JJH 

It is incredible, how much geography may be learnt in 
this way, by the two terrestrial hemispheres, and by par- 
ticular maps and charts of the coasts and countries of the 
earth, happily disposed round about us. Thus we may 
learn also the constellations by just projections of the 
celestial sphere, hung up in the same manner. And I must 
confess, for the bulk of learners of astronomy, I like that 
proje6tion of the stars best, which includes all the stars in 
our horizon, and therefore it reaches to the 38 1-2 degree 
of southern latitude, though its center is the north-pole. 
This gives us a better view of the heavenly bodies, as they 
appear every night to us, and it may be made use of with a 
little instruction, and with ease, to serve for a nocturnal, 
and shew the true hour of the night. 

But remember, that if there be any coloring upon these 
maps or projections, it should be laid on so thin, as not to 
obscure or conceal any part of the lines, figures or letters ; 
whereas most times they are daubed so thick with gay and 
glaring colors, and hung up so high above the reacn of the 
eye, that should survey and read them, as though their only 
design were to make a gaudy show upon the wall, and they 
hung there merely to cover the naked plaster or wainscot. 

Those sciences, which may be drawn out into tables may 
also be hung up, and disposed in proper places, such as 
brief abstracts of history, chronology, &c. and indeed, the 
schemes of any of the arts or sciences may be analysed in 
a sort of skeleton, and represented upon tables, with the 
various dependences and connections of their several parts 
and subjects, that belong to them. Mr. Solomon Lowe has 
happily thrown the grammar of several languages into such 
tables ; and a frequent review of those abstracts would tend 
much to imprint them on the brain, when they have been 
once well learned ; this would keep those learned traces 
always open, and assist the weakness of a laboring memory. 
In this manner, may a scheme of scripture history be drawn 
out, and perpetuate those ideas in the mind, with which our 
daily reading furnishes us. 

VIII, ^Every man, who pretends to the character of a 
scholar,^ should attain some general idea of most or all the 
sciences ; for'there is a certain connection among the vari- 
ous parts of human knowledge, so that some notions bor- 
rowed from any one science, may assist our acquaintance 
with any other, either by way of explication, illustration or 

What direction does he give for { Who should gain some idea of 
coloring maps, &c. f \ most of the sciences ?— Why 1 



212 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

proof; though there are some sciences conjoined by a much 
nearer affinity than others. 

IX. Let those parts of every science be chiefly studied 
at first, and reviewed afterwards,/ which have a more direct 
tendency to assist our^professioh as men, or our general 
profession as Christians) always observing what we our- 
selves have found most'' necessary and useful to us in £he 
course of our lives. /Age and experience will teach uss|to 
judge, which of the Sciences, and which parts of them, have 
been of greatest use, and most valuable ; but in younger 
years, we are not sufficient judges of this matter, and there- 
fore^ should seek advice from others. 

X. There are three learned professions among us, name- 
ly, divinity, law and medicmey^ Though every man, who 
pretends to be a scholar or 'a gentleman) should so far 
acquaint himself with all the sciences, as not to stand 
amazed, like a mere stranger, at the mention of the common 
subjects, that belong to them ; yet there is no necessity for 
every man- of learning to enter into their difficulties, and 
deep recesses, nor to climb the heights, to which some others 
have risen. The knowledge of them in a proper measure, 
may be happily useful to every profession, not only because 
all arts and sciences have a sort of communion and connec- 
tion with each other, but it is an angelic pleasure to grow 
in knowledge ; it is a matter of honor and esteem, and ren- 
ders a man more agreeable and acceptable in every com- 
pany. 

But let us survey several of them more particularly, with 
regard to the learned professions ; and first, of the mathe- 
matics. 

XI. Though I have so often commended mathematical 
studies, and particularly the speculations of arithmetic and 

geometry, as a means to fix a wavering mind, to produce a 
abit of attention, and to improve the faculty of reason ; 
yet I would by no means, be understood to recommend to 
all, a pursuit of these sciences to those extensive lengths, 
to which the moderns have advanced them. This is neither 
necessarj'' nor proper for any students but those few who 

What parts of each science should i Who should have some general 
we more particularly study and re- \ acquaintance with each of these 1 
view 1 i Whom would Watts advise to 

What will teach us to know these \ study mathematics deeply 1 
parts 1 I Why should not persons in general 

How shall young persons know 1 ) \ study mathematics deeply? They 

What are the three learned pro- \ have not time ; and if they had, it 
ifessicmsj' 



0E THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 213 

shall make these studies their chief profession and business 
of life, or those gentlemen whose capacities and turn of 
mind are suited to these studies, and have all manner of 
advantage to improve in them. 

The general principles of arithmetic, algebra, geometry 
and trigonometry, of geography, of modern astronomy, 
mechanics, statics and optics, have their valuable and ex- 
cellent uses, not only for the exercise and improvement of 
the faculties of the mind ; but the subjects themselves are 
very well worth our knowledge in a moderate degree, and 
are often made of admirable service in life. So much of 
these subjects, as Dr. Wells has given us in his three vol- 
umes, entitled, ' The Young Gentleman's Mathematics,' is 
richly sufficient for the greatest part of scholars or gentle- 
men ; though perhaps there may be some single treatises, 
at least, on some of these subjects, which may be better 
written, and more useful to be perused, than those of that 
learned author. 

But a penetration into the abstruse difficulties and depths 
of modern algebra and fluxions, the various methods of 
quadratures, the mensuration of all kinds of curves, and their 
mutual transformation, and twenty other things, that some 
modern mathematicians deal in, are not worth the labor of 
those, who design either of the three learned professions, 
as the business of life. This is the sentence of a consider- 
able man, namely, Dr. George Cheyne, who was a very 
good proficient and writer on these subjects. He affirms, 
that they are but barren and airy studies for a man entirely 
to live upon, and that for a man to indulge and riot in these 
exquisitely bewitching contemplations, is only proper for 
public professors, or for gentlemen of estates, who have a 
strong propensity this way, and a genius fit to cultivate 
them. " But," says he, " to own a great but grievous truth, 
though they may quicken and sharpen the invention, 
strengthen and extend the imagination, improve and refine 
the reasoning faculty, and are of use both in the necessary 
and the luxurious refinement of mechanical arts ; yet hav- 
ing no tendency to rectify the will, to sweeten the temper, 
or mend the heart, they often leave a stiffness, a positive- 
ness and sufficiency on weak minds, which is much more 
pernicious to society, and to the interests of the great end 

would probably be more injurious i Would it not very much strengtb- 
than useful. | en and improve their minds 1 Pro- 

How 1 By diverting their medi- j bably very little, as it relates to 
tations from more useful studies. \ other pursuits. 



214 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

of our being, than all their advantages can recompense." 
He adds further concerning launching into the depth of the 
studies, that they are apt to beget a secret and refined 
pride, an over-weening and overbearing vanity, the most 
opposite temper to the true spirit of the gospel. This 
tempts them to presume on a kind of omniscience in respect 
to 'their fellow-creatures, who have not risen to their eleva- 
tion. Nor are they fit to be trusted in the hands of any but 
those, who have acquired a humble heart, a lowly spirit, and 
a sober and teachable temper. See Dr. Cheyne's preface 
to his Essay on Health and long Life. 

XII. Some of the practical parts of geometry, astronomy, 
dialing, optics, statics, mechanics, &c. may be agreeable 
entertainments and amusements to students in every pro- 
fession at leisure hours, if they enjoy such circumstances 
of life, as to furnish them with conveniences for this sort of 
improvement. But let them take great care, lest they en- 
croach upon more necessary employments, and so fall under 
the charge and censure of wasting time. 

Yet I cannot help making this observation, that where 
students, or indeed any young gentlemen, have in their 
early years, made themselves masters of a variety of ele- 
gant problems in the mathematic circle of knowledge, and 
gained the most easy, neat and entertaining experiments 
in natural philosophy, with some short and agreeable specu- 
lations or practices in any other of the arts or sciences, 
they have hereby laid a foundation for the esteem and love 
of those, with whom they converse ; they have been often 
guarded by this means, from the temptation of pleasures, 
and have secured both their own hours and the hours of 
their companions, from running to waste in sauntering and 
trifles, and from a thousand silly dialogues. Gaming and 
drinking, and many criminal and foolish scenes of talk and 
action, have been prevented, by these innocent and im- 
proving elegancies of knowledge. 

XIIL History is a necessary study in the supreme place 
for gentlemen who deal in politics. The government of 
nations, and distressful and desolating events which have 
in all ages attended the mistakes of politicians, should be 
ever present to their minds, to warn them to avoid the like 
conduct. (Geography and chronology^ which precisely in- 
form us of the place and time where such transactions or 

What caution does he give to \ ticinrts? 
those, who pursue various sciences ? S What are the eyes of history 1— 
Study, peculiarly needful for poli- \ Meaning of chronology ? 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 215 

events happened, are the eyes of history, and of absolute 
necessity in some measure to attend it. 

But history, so far as it relates to the Bible, is as neces- 
sary to divines, as to gentlemen of any profession.) It helps 
to reconcile many difficulties in scripture, and demonstates 
a divine providence. (Dr. Prideaux's Connection of the 
Old and New Testament, is an excellent treatise of this 
kind.) 

XIv. Among 1 the smaller histories, biography, or the 
memoirs of the lives of great and good men, /has a high 
rank, as worthy of the perusal of every person, who devotes 
himself to the study of divinity.! Therein we frequently 
find our holy religion reduced to practice, and many parts of 
Christianity shining with a transcendant and exemplary 
light. We learn there, how deeply sensible great and 
good men have been of the ruin of human nature, by the 
first apostasy from God, and how they have toiled and 
labored, and" turned themselves on all sides, to seek a re- 
covery in vain, till they have found the gospel of Christ an 
all-sufficient relief. We are there furnished with effectual 
and unanswerable evidences, that the religion of Jesus, 
with all its self-denials, virtues and devotions, is a very 
practicable thing; since it has been carried to such a de- 
gree of honor by some wise and holy men. We have been 
there assured, that the pleasures and satisfactions of the 
Christian' life, in its present practice and its future hopes, 
are not the mere raptures of fancy and enthusiasm, when 
some of the strictest professors of reason have added the 
sanction of their testimony. 

In short, the lives or memoirs of persons of piety, well 
written, have been of infinite and unspeakable advantage 
to the disciples and professors of Christianity, and have 
given us admirable instances and rules/how to resist every 
temptation of a soothing or a frowning world, how to prac- 
tise important and difficult duties, how to love God above 
all, and to love our neighbors as ourselves;' to live by the 
faith of the Son of God, and to die in the same faith, in sure 
and certain hope of a resurrection to eternal life. 
XV. Remember, that logic and metaphysics are neces- 



To whom else, is history equally I — Meaning of biography! — of roe- 
necessary, as far as it relates to \ moirs? 
scripture 1 I What are some of the advantages 

What excellent work upon this { of attending to the memoirs of the 
subject, does Watts recommend 1 \ eminently pious ? 

What does he say of biography ? \ 



216 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

sary sciences, though they have been greatly abused by ■ 
the scholastic writers, who have professed to teach them in . 
former ages. Not only all students, whether they design , 
the profession of theology, law or physic, but all gentle- ■ 
Hien-sb ould at least acquire a superficial knowledge of them. 
(Tiie introduction of so many subtleties, nice distinctions 
v and insignificant terms, without clear ideas, has brought a- 
great part 01 the logic or metaphysics of the schools into 
just contempt.} Their logic has appeared the mere art of 
wrangling ; arid their metaphysics, the skill of splitting a 
hair, of distinguishing without a difference, and of putting 
long hard names upon common things, and sometimes upon 
a confused jumble of things, which have no clear ideas be- 
longing to them. 

It is certain, that/an unknown heap of trifles and imperti- 
nences have been intermingled with these useful parts of 
learning, upon which account, many persons in this polite 
age have made it a part of their business to throw a jest 
upon them ; and; to rally them has been esteemed a more 
valuable talent, than to understand them.-.; 

But this is running into a wide extreme' ; nor ought these 
parts of science to be abandoned by the wise, because some 
writers of former ages have played the fool with them. 
True logic teaches us to use our reason well, and brings 
light into the understanding. [True metaphysics, casts a 
light upon all the objects of thought, j by ranging every 
being with all the absolute and relative perfections and 
properties, modes and attendants of it, in proper ranks or 
classes, and thereby it discovers the various relations of 
things to each other, and what are their general or special 
differences, wherein a great part of human knowledge con- 
sists. And by this means, it greatly conduces to instruct 
us in method, or the disposition of every thing into its proper 
rank and class of beings, attributes or actions. 

XVI. If I were to say any thing of natural philosophy, I 
would venture to lay down my sentiments thus ; 

I think, it must needs be very useful to a divine to un- 
derstand something of natural science. I The mere natural 

What has conduced to bring logic \ What objects receive light from 
and metaphysics into contempt 1 \ metaphysics 1 

What have been mingled with \ What natural history does Watts 
these useful parts of learning'! \ include in natural philosophy, or 

What have some considered a j natural science ? 
more valuable talent, than to under- \ To what, is natural philosophy 
derstand them 1 — Meaning of rally ? * generally confined 1 To inanimate 

Into what, does logic bring light 1 \ and unorganised matter. 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 217 

history of birds, beasts and fishes, of insects, trees and 
plants, as well as of meteors, such as clouds, thunders, 
lightnings, snow, hail, frost,)&c. in all their common or un- 
common appearances, may be of considerable use to one 
who studies divinity, to give him a wider and more delight- 
ful view of the works of God, and to furnish him with lively 
and happy images and metaphors, drawn from the large 
volume of nature, to display and represent the things of 
God and religion in the most beautiful and affecting colors. 

And if the mere history of these things is useful for this 
purpose, surely it will be of further advantage to be led 
into the reasons, causes and effects of these natural objects 
and appearances, and to know the established laws of 
nature, matter and motion, whereby the great God has car- 
ried on his extensive works of providence from the creation 
to this day. 

I confess, the old Aristotelean scheme of this science, 
will teach us very little, that is worth knowing ; but the 
later writers, who have explained nature and its operations 
in a more sensible and geometrical manner, are well worth 
the moderate study of a divine ; especially of those, who 
have followed the principles of that wonder o^ our age and 
nation, Sir Isaac Newton. There is much pleasure and 
entertainment, as well as real profit, to be derived from 
those admirable improvements, which have been advanced 
in natural philosophy of late years, by the assistance of 
mathematical learning as well as from the multitude of ex- 
periments, which have been made, and are still making, in 
natural subjects. 

XVII. This is a science, which indeed eminently be- 
longs to the physician. He ought to know all the parts of 
human nature, what are the sound and healthy functions of 
an animal body, and what are the distempers and dangers 
which attend it ; he should also be furnished with a large 
knowledge of plants and minerals, and every thing, which 
makes up the materia medica, or the ingredients of which 
medicines are made ; and many other things in natural 
philosophy are subservient to his profession, as well as to 
the kindred art of surgery. 

Meaning of inanimate 1— of unor- { More extensive sense of the word 

ganized ? \ Zo-ology ? The science, that treats 

What science treats of beasts? \ of all irrational animals. 

Zoology. — Of birds 1 Ornithology. \ What advantage may divines and 

— Of insects 1 Entomology. — Of \ nersons in general, derive from some 

fishes 1 Ichthyology. — Of vegeta- \ acquaintance with natural history 1 

bles 1 Botany. \ "What science eminently belongs 

Meaning of insect ? — of vegetable 1 \ to the physician 1 



218 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

XVIII. Questions about the powers and operations of 
nature, may also sometimes come into the lawyer's cog- 
nizance, especially such, as relate to assaults, wounds, 
murders, &c. I remember, I have read a trial of a man for 
murder by drowning - , wherein the judge on the bench heard 
several arguments concerning the lungs being filled or not 
filled with water, by inspiration or expiration, &c. to all 
which, he professed himself so much a stranger, as did not 
do him any great honor in public. 

XIX. But I think, no divine, who can obtain it, should be 
utterly destitute of this knowledge. By the assistance of 
this study, he will be better able to survey the various 
monuments of creating wisdom in the heavens, the earth 
and the seas, with wonder and worship ; and by the use of 
a moderate skill in this science, he may communicate so 
much information of the astonishing works of God in the 
formation and government of this visible world, and so far 
instruct many of his hearers, as may assist the transfusion 
of the eanie ideas into their minds, and raise them to the 
same delightful exercises of devotion. "O Lord, how 
manifold are thy works ! In wisdom, hast thou made them 
all ! They are sought out by all that have pleasure in 
them." 

Besides, it is worthy of the notice of every student in 
theology, that he ought to have some acquaintance with the 
principles of nature, that he may judge, how far they will 
go ; so that he may not be imposed upon, to take every 
strange appearance in nature for a miracle ; that he may 
reason the clearer upon this subject, that he may better 
confirm the miracles of Moses and of Christ, nor yield 
up his faith to any pretences to prodigies and wonders, 
which are either the occasional and uncommon opera- 
tions of the elements, or the crafty sleights of men, well 
skilled in philosophy and mechanical operations, to delude 
the simple. 

XX. The knowledge also of animal nature and of the 
rational soul of man, and the mutual influence of these two 

Why should divines know some- { Best writer upon mental philoso- 
thing of the animal and rational i phy ? Probably Watts, 
nature of man ? j Wriyl His writings upon this 

What is that science called, which | subject appear to be more correct, 
treats of the rational part of man 1 j more practical, more useful, and 
Mental philosophy, or intellectual ? much more intelligible, 
philosophy. ? What literary work seems now to 

Most famous writers upon mental 5 be needed, more than almost any 
philosophy 1 Locke, Reid, Stewart j other 1 A treatise upon mental phi- 
and Brown. \ losophy, much greater and better, 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 219 

ingredients of our composition, upon each other, is worthy 
the study of a divine. It is of great importance to persona 
of this character and office, to judge, how far the animal 
powers have influence upon such and such particular ap- 
pearances and practices of mankind ; how far the appetites 
or passions of human nature are owing to flesh and blood, 
or to the mind ; how far they may be moderated, and how 
far they ought to be subdued ; and what are the happiest 
means of obtaining these ends. By this science also, we 
may be better informed, how far these passions or appetites 
are lawful, and how far they are criminal, by considering 
how far they are subject to the power of the will, and how 
far they may be changed and corrected by our watchful- 
ness, care and diligence. 

It comes also very properly under the cognizance of this 
profession, to be able in some measure, to determine ques- 
tions, which may arise relating to real inspiration or pro- 
phecy, to wild enthusiasm, to fits of convulsion, to melan- 
choly or phrenzy, &c. and what directions are proper to be 
given, concerning any appearances of this nature. 

XXI. Next to the knowledge of natural things, and 
acquaintance with the human nature and constitution, which 
is made up of soul and body, I think natural religion proper- 
ly takes its place. This consists of these two parts, namely, 
1. The speculative or contemplative ; which is the knowl- 
edge of God in his various perfections, and in his relations 
to his rational creatures, so far, as may be known by the 
light of nature. It includes also, 2. That which is practical 
or active, which is the knowledge of the several duties, 
that arise from our relation to God, and our relation to our 
fellow-creatures, and our proper conduct and government 
of ourselves. This has been called ethics or moral phi- 
losophy. 

XXII. The knowledge of these things is proper for all 
men of learning; not only, because it teaches them to ob- 
tain juster views of the several parts of revealed religion, 
and of Christianity, which are built upon them, but because 
every branch of natural religion and of moral duty is con- 

than any we have. I man mind 1 ] It was inspired by 

Grand sources of light upon this \ Him, who knows perfectly what is 

subject 1 The Bihle, consciousness, X in man, and relates very much to 

observation, history and the writings { the human mind. 

of others. I First part of natural religion ? 

Grand defect of writers upon this j Second part of natural religion *? 

subject ? Neglect of the Bible. \ In what, is every branch of na- 

Why is the Bible the best source j tural religion and moral duty con- 

of information, respecting the hu- \ tained and implied 1 



220 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

tained, and necessarily implied in revealed religion. We 
may well suspect, that religion does not come from God, 
which renounces any part of natural duty. 

Whether mankind live under the dispensation of the 
patriarchs or of Moses or the prophets or of our Lord Jesus 
Christ, still we are bound to know the one true God, and to 
practise all that adoration and reverence, all that love to 
him, that faith in his perfections, with that obedience and 
submission to his will, which natural religion requires. 
We are still bound to exercise that justice, truth and good- 
ness towards our neighbors, that restraint and moderation 
of our own appetites and passions, and that regular be- 
havior toward ourselves and all our fellow-creatures around 
us, which moral philosophy teaches. There is no sort of 
revealed religion, that will dispense with these natural 
obligations ; and a happy acquaintance with the several 
appetites, inclinations and passions of human nature, and 
the best methods to rule and restrain, to direct and govern 
them, are our constant business, and ought to be our ever- 
lasting study. 

Yet I would lay down this caution, namely, that since 
students are instructed in the knowledge of the true God, 
in their lectures on Christianity, and since among the Chris- 
tian duties, they are also taught all the moral dictates of 
the light of nature, or a complete scheme of ethics, there 
is no absolute necessity of learning these two parts of 
natural religion, as distinct sciences, separate and by them- 
selves ; but still, it is of great importance for a tutor, while 
he is reading to his pupils these parts of the Christian reli- 
gion, to give them notice, how far the light of nature or 
mere reason will instruct us in these doctrines and duties, 
and how far we are obliged to divine revelation and scrip- 
ture, for clearing up and establishing the firm foundation 
of the one, for affording us superior motives and powers to 
practise the other, for raising them to more exalted degrees, 
and building so glorious a superstructure upon them. 

XXIII. The study of natural religion, namely, the knowl- 
edge of God, and trie rules of virtue and piety,' as far as 
they are discovered by the light of nature, is needful indeed 
to prove the truth of divine revelation or scripture, in the 
most effectual manner. But after the divine authority of 
scripture is established, that will be a very sufficient spring, 

Why is it not absolutely neces- I What study is previously neces- 
sary to study natural religion, as a \ sary, in order to prove the truth of 
distinct science 1 \ Scripture most effectually. 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 221 

from whence the bulk of mankind may derive their knowl- 
edge of divinity or the Christian religion, in order to their 
own present faith and practice, and their future and eternal 
happiness. In this sense, theology is a science, necessary 
for every one, that hopes for the favor of God, and the 
felicity of another world ; and it is of infinitely more impor- 
tance, than any of the arts and sciences, which belong to 
any of the learned professions here on earth. 

XXIV. Perhaps it will be thought necessary, I should 
say something concerning the study of the civil law, or the 
law of nature and nations. 

If we would speak with great justness and propriety, the 
civil law signifies the peculiar law of each state, country or 
city ; but what we now usually mean by the civil law, is a 
body of laws, composed out of the best of the Roman and 
Grecian laws, and which was in the main, received and 
observed through all the Roman dominions for about twelve 
hundred years. 

The Romans took the first grounds of this law from what 
they call the twelve tables, which were the abridgments of 
the laws of Solon at Athens, and of other cities in Greece, 
famous for knowledge and wisdom ; to which, they added 
their own ancient customs of the city of Rome, and the 
laws, which were made there. These written laws were 
subject to various interpretations ; whence controversies 
daily arising, they were determined by the judgment of the 
learned ; and these determinations were what they first 
calledjws civile, civil law. All this by degrees, grew to a 
vast number of volumes ; and therefore, the emperor Jus- 
tinian commanded his chancellor Tribonian to reduce them 
to a perfect body ; and this is called the body of the civil 
law. 

XXV. But that, which is of most importance for all 
learned men to be acquainted with, is the law of nature, or 
the knowledge of right and wrong among mankind, whether 
it be transacted between single persons or communities, 
so far as common reason and the light of nature dictate and 
direct. This is what Puffendorf calls the law of nature and 
nations, as will appear if you consult Sect. 3. chap. III. of 

What is the most important of all \ the first grounds of their law 1 

sciences 1 s Meaning of jus civile ? 

To whom, is theology important 1 \ What law is it more important, 

What is the civil law, strictly so \ that all should know, than the civil 

called 1 i law 1 

What is it usually considered 1 ? What does Puffendorf call this 

Firom what, did the Romans take \ law 1 

19* 



222 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

that most valuable folio, he has written on the subject; 
which is well worthy the study of every man of learning, 
particularly lawyers and divines, together with other trea- 
tises on the same theme. 

If any question proposed relate to right and property, 
and justice between man and man, in any polite and civilized 
country, though it must be adjudged chiefly according to 
the particular statutes and laws of that country, yet the 
knowledge of the law of nature will very considerably assist 
the lawyer and the civil judge in determination. And this 
knowledge will be of great use to divines, not only in 
deciding cases of conscience among men, and answering 
any difficult enquiries, which may be proposed to them on 
this subject, but it will greatly assist them also in their 
studies relating to the law of God, and the performance or 
violation of it, the nature of duty and sin, reward and 
punishment. 

XXVI. I have spoken something of the languages be- 
fore ; but let me here resume the subject, and put in a few 
thoughts about those studies, which are wont to be called 
philological ; such as history, languages, grammar, rhetoric, 
poesy and criticism. 

An acquaintance with some of the learned languages at 
least, is necessary for all the three learned professions. 

XXVII. The lawyers, who have the least need of foreign 
tongues, ought to understand Latin. During many ages, 
very important matters in the law were always written and 
managed in that language by the lawyers, as prescriptions 
in medicine by the physicians, and citations of the scrip- 
tures in divinity were always made in Latin by the divines. 
Prayers also were ordained to be said publicly and private- 
ly in the Roman tongue. Pater-nosters and Ave-marias 
were half the devotion of those ages. These cruel- im- 
positions upon the people, would not suffer them to read in 
their own mother tongue, what was done, either to or for 
their own souls, their bodies or their estates. I am ready to 
suspect, this was all owing to the craft and policy of the 
priesthood and church of Rome, who endeavored to ag- 
grandize themselves, and exalt their own profession into a 
sovereign tyranny, and to make mere slaves of the laity, by 

How will a knowledge of this law 5 fy? The Lord's prayer, 

assist divines ? { Meaning of ave-Maria? Hail, 

Literal meaning of pater-noster ? \ Mary.— Used to signify! An ad- 

Our father. I dress to the virgin Mary. 

What is the phrase used to signi- \ 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 223 

peeping them in utter ignorance, darkness and dependence. 
And they were willing to compound the matter with the 
physicians and the laywers, and allow them a small share 
in this tyranny over the populace, to maintain their own 
supreme dominion over all. 

But, we thank God, the world has grown somewhat wiser ; 
and of late years, the British Parliament has been pleased 
to give relief from that bondage in matters relating to the 
law also, as in the age of the Reformation, we were de- 
livered from saying our prayers in Latin, from being bound 
to read the word of God in a tongue unknown to the peo- 
ple, and from living in an everlasting subjection to the 
clergy in matters of this life and the life to come. 

But 1 to return. There are still so many forms of proceed- 
ings in judicature, and things called by Latin names in the 
profession of the law, and so many barbarous words with 
Latin terminations, that it is necessary, lawyers should 
understand this language. Some acquaintance also with 
the old French tongue, is needful for the same persons and 
profession, since the tenures of Lyttleton, which are a sort 
of Bible to the gentlemen of the long robe, were written in 
that language ; and this tongue has been interwoven in 
some forms of the English law, from the days of William 
the Conqueror, who came from Normandy in France. 

XXVIII. Physicians should be skilled in the Greek, as 
well as in the Latin ; because their great master Hippocra- 
tes wrote in that tongue, and his writings are still of good 
value and use. A multitude of the names, both of the parts 
of the body, of diseases, and of medicines, are derived from 
the Greek language ; and there are many excellent books 
of physic both in the theoretical and practical parts of it, 
which are delivered to the world in the Roman tongue, and 
of which that profession should not be ignorant. 

XXIX. Such, as intend the study of theology, should be 
well acquainted also with the Latin, because it has been 
for many hundred years the language of the schools of 
learning. Their disputations are generally limited to that 
language, and many excellent books of divinity must be 
entirely concealed from the students, unless they are ac- 
quainted with Latin authors. 

But those, that design the sacred profession of theology, 
should make it their labor of chief importance to be con- 
versant with their Bibles, both in the Old and New Testa- 

With what book, should ministers be best acquainted 1 

19** 



224 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

ment ; and this requires some knowledge of those original 
languages, Greek and Hebrew, in which the scriptures 
were written. All that will pursue these studies with 
honor, should be able to read the Old Testament tolerably 
in the Hebrew tongue ; at least, they should be so far ac- 
quainted with it, as to find out the sense of a text, by the 
help of a lexicon. But scarcely any man should be thought 
worthy of the name of a solid divine or a skilful teacher of 
the gospel in these days of light and liberty, unless he has 
pretty good knowledge of the Greek; isince all the impor- 
tant points of the Christian religion are derived from the 
New Testament, which was first written in that language. 

XXX. As for the Syriac and Arabic tongues, if one 
divine in thirty or in three hundred, travel far into these 
regions, it is enough. A few learned men skilled in these 
languages, will make sufficient remarks upon them for the 
service of the whole Christian world ; which remarks may 
sometimes happen to be of use to those divines, who are 
unacquainted with them in reading the Bible. But the 
advantage of these tongues is not of so great importance, 
as it has been too often represented. My reader will agree 
with me, when he considers, that the chief uses of them are 
these. 

The Arabic is a language which has some kindred and 
affinity to the Hebrew, and perhaps we may now and then 
guess at the sense of some uncommon and doubtful He- 
brew word, which is found but once or twice in the. Bible, 
by its supposed affinity to the Arabic. But whatsoever 
conjectures may be made by some kindred of a Hebrew 
word to an Arabic root, yet there is no certainty to be 
gathered from it ; for even words of the same language, 
which are undoubtedly derived from the same theme or 
primitive, will give us but very doubtful and sorry infor- 
mation concerning the true sense of kindred words, which 
spring from the same root. 

Let me give a plain instance or two of this uncertainty. 
The word strages signifies slaughter ; stratum is Latin 
for a bed ; stramen is straw ; and stragulum is a quilt or 
coverlet. They are all drawn and derived from sterno, 
which signifies to throw down, to kill, or to spread abroad. 
Let the critics say, what certain sense they could put upon 
either of those four words by their mere cognation with 

Foreign languages, most irnpor- \ Greek, better than Hebrew? 
tant for ministers to know 1— Why? \ What proportion of ministers 
Why should a minister know \ should know Syriac and Arabic 1 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 225 

each other, or their derivation from one common verb. 
Again, who could tell me the certain meaning and precise 
idea of the word honest in English, and assure me, that it 
signifies a man of integrity, justice and probity, though it is 
evidently derived from honestus in Latin ? whereas honestus 
has a very different idea, and signifies a man of some figure 
-in the world, or a man of honor. Let any man judge, then, 
how little service toward explaining the Hebrew tongue 
can be furnished from all the language of Arabia. Surely 
a great part of the long, learned fatigues and tiresome 
travels of men through this country, is almost vain and 
useless, to make the Hebrew Bible better understood. 

f As for the Syriac language^ it is granted, there may be 
some small advantage drawn'' from the knowledge of it; 
because there is a very ancient translation of the New 
Testament in that tongue ; and perhaps this may sometimes 
give a properand apposite meaning to a difficult and doubt- 
ful text, and offer a fair hint for recovering the true mean- 
ing of the scripture from the perverse glosses of other 
writers. But there are several commentators and lexicogra- 
phers, who have been acquainted with the Syriac language, 
and have given us the chief of these hints in their writings. 

And after all, since none of these assistances can yield 
us a sufficient proof of a true interpretation, and give us the 
certain sense of a text, who would be persuaded to waste 
any great number of his better hours in such dry studies, 
and m labors of so little profit? 

XXXI. The Chaldean language indeed is much nearer 
to the Hebrew ; and it is proper for a divine to have some 
acquaintance with it, because there are several verses or 
chapters of Ezra and Daniel, which are written in that lan- 
guage ; and the old Jewish targums or commentaries, which 
are written in the Chaldean tongue, may sometimes happen 
to cast a little light upon a doubtful scripture of the Old 
Testament. 

But it must still be owned, that the knowledge of the 
Eastern tongues does not deserve to be magnified to such 
a degree, as some of the proficients in them have indulged ; 
-wherein they have carried matters beyond all reason and 
justice, since scarcely any of the most important subjects 
of the gospel of Christ and the way of salvation, can gain 
any advantage from them. 

XXXII. The art of grammar comes now to be men- 

From what languages, does Watts say that the doctrines of the gospel 
derive scarcely any advantage ? 



226 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

tioned. It is a distinct thing from the mere knowledge of 
the languages ; for all mankind are taught from their in- 
fancy* to speak their mother tongue, by a natural imitation 
of their mothers and nurses, and those who are roundabout 
them, without any knowledge of the art of grammar, and 
the various observations and rules that relate to it. Gram- 
mar, indeed, ( is nothing else but rules and observations 
drawn from the common speech of mankind in their several 
languages ; and it teaches us to speak and pronounce, to 
spell and write, with propriety and exactness, according to 
the custom of those in every nation, who are or were sup- 
posed to speak and write their own language best.X Now it 
is a shame for a man to pretend to science and stiray in any 
of the three learned professions, who is not in some meas- 
ure acquainted with the propriety of those languages, with 
which, he ought to be conversant in his daily studies, and 
more especially in such, as he may sometimes be called 
upon to write, as well as read. 

XXXIII, Next to grammar, we proceed to consider 
rhetoric. : Now rhetoric in general is the art of persuading, 1 
which may be distinguished into these three parts, namely, 
1. Conveying the sense of the speaker to the understand- 
ing of the hearers in the clearest and most intelligent man- 
ner, by the plainest expressions and the most lively and 
striking representations, so that the mind may be thoroughly- 
convinced of the thing proposed. 2. Persuading the will 
effectually to choose or refuse the thing suggested and 
represented. 3. Raising the passions in the most vivid 
and forcible manner, so as to set all the soul and every 
power of nature at work, to pursue or avoid the thing in 
debate. 

To attain this end, there is not only a great deal of art 
necessary in the representation of matters to the auditory, 
but also in the disposition or method of introducing these 
particular representations, together with the reasons, which 
might convince, and the various methods, which might 
persuade and prevail upon the hearers. There are certain 
seasons, wherein a violent torrent of oration in a disguised 
and concealed method, may be more effectual, than all the 
nice forms of logic and reasoning. The figures of inter- 
rogation and exclamation, have sometimes a large place 
and happy effect in this sort of discourse ; and no figure of 

How does he define Grammar 1 | complished by rhetoric ? To instruct, 
General definition of rhetoric 1 \ persuade and inflame. 
Three principal things, to be ac- \ 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 227 

speech should be wanting here, where the speaker has 
art enough happily to introduce it. 

There are many remarks and rules laid down by the 
teachers of this art, to improve a young genius in those 
glorious talents whereby /Tully and Demosthenes acquired 
that amazing influence and success in their own respective 
ages and nations, and that immortal fame through all nations 
and ages. And it is with great advantage, these rules may 
be perused and learned. But a happy genius, a lively 
imagination and warm passions, together with a due degree 
of knowledge and skill in the subject to be debated, and a 
perpetual perusal of the writings of the best orators, and 
hearing the best speakers; will do more to make an orator, 
than all the rules of art in the world, without these natural 
talents and this careful imitation of the most approved and 
happiest orators. 

XXXIV. Now you will presently suppose, that pleaders 
at the bar have great need of this art of rhetoric ; but it has 
been a just doubt, whether pleading in our British courts 
of justice, before a skilful judge, should admit of any other 
aid from rhetoric, than that which teaches to open a cause 
clearly, and spread it in the most perspicuous, complete 
and impartial manner, before the eyes of him that judges ; 
for impartial justice being the thing which is sought, there 
should be no artifices used, no eloquence or powers of lan- 
guage employed, to persuade the will, or work upon the pas- 
sions, lest the decisive sentence of the judge should be 
biassed or warped into injustice. For this reason, Mr. 
Locke would banish all pleaders in the law for fees, out of 
his government of Carolina, in his posthumous works ; 
though perhaps that great man might possibly be too severe, 
in so universal a censure of the profession. 

XXXV. But the case is very different with regard to 
divines., The eloquence of the pulpit, beyond all contro- 
versy, has a much larger extent. Their business is not to 
plead a cause of right and wrong before a wise and skilful 

What orators have acquired im- j Why is eloquence very desirable 

mortal fame though all nations and \ in a minister? 

ages 1 I Why should a lawyer have some 

Advantage of rules in rhetoric 1 \ eloquence ? To keep the attention 

To avoid what is bad, to select what { fixed upon the subject. 

is good, and to express and arrange { Why is it not desirable, that a 

it in the best manner. i lawyer should be very eloquent 1 

What will do more to make an I Judge and jury are not so likely to 

orator, than all the rules of art ? { see the truth by the glare of great 

To which, is eloquence most need- \ eloquence, as by more calm and 

ful,. a minister or a lawyer 1 \ steady light. 



228 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

judge, bat to address all the ranks of mankind, the high 
asa low, the wise and the unwise, the sober and the vicious, 
and persuade them all to persevere in virtue with regard to 
themselves, in justice and goodness with regard to their 
neighbors, and piety towards God. These are affairs of 
everlasting importance ; and'most of the persons, to whom 
these addresses are made, are not wise and skilful judges ; 
but, are influenced and drawn strongly to the contrary side, 
by their own sinful appetites and passions^ and bribed or 
biassed by the corrupt customs of the world. 

There is, therefore, a necessity not only of a clear and 
faithful representation of things to men, in order to con- 
vince their judgment, but of all the skill and force of per- 
suasion, addressed to the will and the passions. So Tully 
addressed the whole senate of Rome ; and Demosthenes, 
the Athenian people, among whom, were capacities and 
inclinations of infinite variety ; and therefore, these orators 
made use of all the lightning and thunder, all the entreaties 
and terrors, all the soothing elegances and the flowery 
beauties of language, which tneir art could furnish. Divines 
in the pulpit have much the same sort of hearers ; and 
therefore, they should imitate those ancient examples. 
The understanding indeed ought to be first convinced, 
by the plainest and strongest force of reasoning. But when 
this is done, all the powerful motives should be used, which 
have any just influence upon human nature ; all the springs 
of passion should be touched, to awaken the stupid and the 
thoughtless into consideration, to penetrate and melt the 
hardest heart, to persuade the unwilling, to excite the lazy, 
to reclaim the obstinate, and reform the vicious part of 
mankind, as well as to encourage those, who are humble 
and pious, and to support their practice and their hope. 
The tribes of men are sunk into so fatal a degeneracy, and 
dreadful distance from God, and from all that is holy and 
happy, that all the eloquence which a preacher is master of, 
should be employed, in order to recover the world from its 
shameful ruin and wretchedness, by the gospel of our bles- 
sed Savior, and restore it to virtue and piety, to God and 
happiness, by the divine power of this gospel. O may such 
glorious masters of sacred oratory never be wanting in the 
pulpits of Great Britain ! 

When should ministers exert their i When should they be more cool 
utmost eloquence ? When they } and deliberate ? When they would 
would persuade others to act accord- j instruct and convince, 
ing to acknowledged truth, ] 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 229 

XXXVI. Shall I now speak something of ray sentiments 
concerning poesy ? 

As for books of poesy, whether in the learned or in the 
modern languages, they are of great use to be read at hours 
of leisure, by all perspns, that make any pretence to good 
education or learning ; and that for several reasons. 

1. [There are many couplets or stanzas written in poetic 
measures, which contain a variety of morals or rules of 
practice^relating to the common prudentials of mankind, as 
well as to matters of religion ; and the poetic numbers, or 
rhyme, if there be any, add very considerable force to the 
memory. 

Besides, many elegant and admirable sentiments or 
descriptions of things, which are found among the poets, 
are well worth committing to memory ; and the particular 
measures of verse greatly assist us in recollecting such 
excellent passages, which might sometimes raise our con- 
versation from low and groveling subjects. 

2.( In heroic verse, but especially in the grander lyrics, 
there are sometimes such noble elevations of thought and 
passion, as illuminate all things around us, and convey to 
the soul most exalted and magnificent images and sublime 
sentiments.! These furnish us with glorious springs and 
mediums, to raise and aggrandize our conceptions, to warm 
our souls, to awaken the better passions, and to elevate 
them even to a divine pitch, and that for devotional pur- 
poses. It is the lyric ode, which has shown to the world 
some of the happiest examples of this kind ; and I cannot 
say but this part of poesy has been my favorite amusement 
above all others. 

And for this reason it is, that I have never thought the 
heroic poems, Greek, Latin or English, which have obtained 
the highest fame in the world, rare sufficiently diversified, 
exalted or animated^ for want of the intergpersion of now 
and then an elegiac or a lyric ode. This might have been 
done with great and beautiful propriety, where the poet has 
introduced a song at a feast, or the joys of a victory, or the 
soliloquies of a divine satisfaction, or the pensive and 
despairing agonies of distressing sorrow. Why should 
that, which is called the most glorious form of poesy, be 

Who should read poetry 1 i Meaning of heroic poem ? A poem 

First reason for reading poetry 1 — \ that celebrates the achievements of 

second 1 — third 1— fourth 1 \ heroes 1 

What objection does Watts make \ Meaning of achievement 1 

to the most famous heroic poems 1 \ 



230 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 



bound clown and confined to such a long and endless ' 
uniformity of measures, when it should kindle or melt the 
soul, swell or sink it into all the various and transporting 
changes, of which human nature is capable ? 

Cowley, in his unfinished fragment of the Davideis, has 
shown us this way to improvement ; and whatever blem- 
ishes may be found in other parts of that heroic essay, this 
beauty and glory of it ought to be preserved for imitation. 
I am well assured, that if Homer and Virgil had happened 
to practise it, it would have been renowned and glorified by 
every critic. I greatly mistake, if this wise mixture of 
numbers would not be a further reach of perfection, than 
they have ever attained. Let it be remembered, that it is 
not nature and strict reason, but a weak and awful rever- 
ence for antiquity and of the vogue of fallible men, that has 
established those Greek and Roman writings as absolute 
and complete patterns. In several ages, there have been 
some men of learning, who have very justly disputed this 
glory, and have pointed to many of their mistakes. 

3. But still there is another end of reading poesy, and 
perhaps the most considerable advantage to be obtained 
from it by the bulk of mankind ; and that is/to furnish our 
tongues with the richest and the most polite variety of 
phrases and words upon all occasions of life and religion.*} 
He, that writes well in verse, will often find a necessity to 
send his thoughts in search through all the treasure' of 
words, that express any one idea in the same language, 
that so he may comport with the measures or the rhyme 
of the verse which he writes, or with his own most beauti- 
ful and vivid sentiments of the thing he describes. Now 
by much reading of this kind, we shall insensibly acquire 
the habit and skill of diversifying our phrases upon all oc- 
casions, and of expressing our ideas in the most proper and 
beautiful language, whether we write or speak of the things 
of God or men. 

(It is a pity, that some of these harmonious writers have 
ever indulged in any thing impure, to defile their paper, and 
abuse the ears of their readers, or to, offend against the 
rules of the nicest virtue and politeness.) But still, among 
the writings of Mr. Dryden and Mr. Pope and Dr. Young, 
as well as others, there is a sufficient choice in our own 
language, wherein we shall not find any indecency to shock 
the most modest tongue or ear. 

What does Watts lament, as a fault of some of our harmonious writers'! 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 231 

Perhaps there has hardly been a writer in any nation, 
and I may dare to affirm, there is none in ours, who has a 
richer and happier talent of painting to the life, or has ever 
discovered such a large and inexhausted variety of descrip- 
tion, as the celebrated Mr. Pope.) If you read his transla- 
tion of Homer's Iliad, you will find almost all the terms or 
phrases in our tongue, that are needful to express any thing 
that is grand or magnificent. But if you peruse his Odyssey, 
which descends much more into common life, there is 
scarcely any usual subject of discourse or thought, or any 
ordinary occurrence, which he has not cultivated and dressed 
in the most proper language ; and yet still he has ennobled 
and enlivened even the lower subjects, with the brightest 
and most agreeable ornaments. 

I should add here also, that if the same author had more 
frequently employed his pen on divine themes, his short 
poem on the Messiah, and some parts of his letters between 
Abelard and Eloisa, with that ode of the dying Christian, 
&c. sufficiently assure us, that his pen would have honor- 
ably imitated some of the tender scenes of penitential sor- 
row, as well as the sublimer odes of the Hebrew psalmist ; 
and perhaps discovered to us, in a better manner, than any 
other translation has done, how great a poet sat upon the 
throne of Israel. 

4. After all that I have said, there is yet a further use of 
reading poesy, and that is, when the mind has been fatigued 
with studies of a more laborious kind, or when it is in any 
way unfit for the pursuit of more difficult subjects, it may 
be as it were unbent, and repose itself a while on the 
flowery meadows, where the muses dwell. It is a very 
sensible relief to the soul, when it is over-tired, to amuse 
itself with the numbers and the beautiful sentiments of the 
poets ; and in a little time, this agreeable amusement may 
recover the languid spirits to activity, and more important 
service. 

XXXVII. All this I propose to the world, as my best 
observations about reading of verse. But if the question 
were offered to me, " Shall a student of a bright genius 
never divert himself with writing poesy ?" I would answer, 
" Yes, ; when he cannot possibly help it.") A lower genius 

What English poet does Watts I student's writing poetry, even when 

consider as having the happiest tal- } he can help if? It may conduce to 

ent for painting and description 1 l fire his genius, to wing his imagina- 

When would Watts have a stu- \ tion, to improve his taste, and give 

dent write poetiy 1 \ him a better command of language. 

What may be the advantage of a | Grand advantage of improving his 



232 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 

in mature years, would heartily wish, that he had spent much 
more time in reading the best authors of this kind, and 
employed much fewer hours in writing. But it must be 
confessed, or supposed at least, that there may be seasons, 
when it is hardly possible for a poetic soul to restrain the 
fancy, or quench the flame, when it is hard to suppress the 
exuberant flow of lofty sentiments, and prevent the imagi- 
nation from this sort of style or language. That is the only 
season, I think, wherein this inclination should be in- 
dulged ; especially by persons, who have devoted them- t 
selves to professions of a different kind ; and one reason is, 
because what they write in that hour, is more likely to carry 
in it some appearances above nature, some happy imitation 
of the dictates of the muse.* 

XXXVIII. There are other things besides history, gram- 
mar and languages, rhetoric and poesy, which have been 
included under the name of philological knowledge ; such 
as, an acquaintance with the notions, customs, manners, 
tempers, polity, &c. of the various nations of the earth, or 
the distinct sects and tribes of mankind. This is neces- 
sary, in order to understand history the better ; and every 
man who is a lawyer or a gentlemen, ought to obtain some 
acquaintance with these things, without which, he can 
never read history to any great advantage ; nor can he 
maintain his own station and character in life with honor 
and dignity, without some insight into them. 

XXXIX. Students in divinity ought to seek a larger 
acquaintance with the Jewish laws, polity, customs, &c. in 
order to understand many passages of the Old Testament 
and the New, and to vindicate the sacred writers from the 
reproaches of infidels. An acquaintance also with many 

poetic taste ? It will enable him to I Heathen sense of the noun muse? 

read with more pleasure and profit, \ — philosopic sense? 

the best poems in our language, I Meaning of polity 1 

especially the poetic parts of the { Literal meaning of critic? Ajudge. 

Bible. \ What is criticism ? The art of 

What passages of poetry are most { judging, 
worthy of being committed to me- \ To what, is the word more gen- 
mory ? Those that are best suited { erally applied ? To judging literary 
to direct the conduct, and fit the \ productions, and to the fine arts, 
soul for heaven. I What are the fine arts 1 Those 

What poem in our language, has \ arts, which relate in a great meas- 
probably more such passages than I ure, to ornament and eloquence, 
any other? Young's JNight Thoughts. \ What are the other arts called 1 

* The muse in the ancient heathen sense is supposed to be a goddess 
but in the philosophic sense it can mean no more than a bright genius with 
a warm and strong imagination, elevated to an uncommon degree. ' 



OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 233 

of the Roman and Grecian affairs is needful, to explain 
several texts of scripture in the New Testament, to lead 
sincere inquirers into the true and genuine sense of the 
evangelists and apostles, and to guard their writings from 
the unreasonable cavils of men. 

XL. The art of criticism is reckoned by some as a dis- 
tinct part of philology ; but it is in truth nothing else, but a 
more exact and accurate knowledge or skill in the other 
parts of it, and a readiness to apply that knowledge upon 
all occasions, in order to judge well of what relates to these 
subjects, to explain what is obscure in the authors which 
we read, to supply what is defective, and amend what is 
erroneous in manuscripts or ancient copies, to correct the 
mistakes of authors and editors in the sense or the words, 
to reconcile the controversies of the learned, and by this 
means, to spread a juster knowledge of these things among 
the inquisitive part of mankind. 

Every man, who pretends to a learned profession, if he 
does not rise to be a critic himself in philological matters, 
should be frequently conversing with those books, whether 
dictionaries, paraphrases, commentaries or other critical 
works, which may relieve any difficulties he meets with, 
and give him a more exact acquaintance with those studies, 
which he pursues. 

And whenever any person has arrived at such a degree 
of knowledge in these things, as to furnish him well for the 
practice of criticism, let him take great care, that pride and 
vanity, contempt of others, with inward wrath and insolence, 
do not mingle with his remarks and censures. ;< Let him 
remember the common frailties of human nature, and the 
mistakes, to which the wisest man is sometimes liable, that 
he may practise this art with due modesty and candor. 

The useful arts, mechanical arts or { point out and explain the excellences 
trades. j and imperfections of what he ex- 

Which are most important ? { amines. 

What caution does Watts give to ] Into what capital faults are critics 
critics'! \ in danger of falling? Flattery or se- 

Proper business of a critic ? To | verity. 

Miscellaneous Questions, No. VI. 

What effect upon the judgment, { Greatest improvement in schools, 
have hurry, pertubation and confu- i since the days of Watts 1 
sion ? • j To what, should scoffers at the 

What if the memory be too much § Bible, lay aside all pretence 1 
crowded 1 j Grand advantage of conversing 

For what points, should we not j with equals'? 
indulge religious zeal ? \ Meaning of mental philosophy ? 

20 



234 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



Grand advantage of improving 
poetic taste 1 

Into what, does bright genius often 
betray its possessor 1 

Why is the greater part of Prov- 
erbs hard to be remembered 1 

In proportion to what, should al- 
ways be our assent? 

Most distinguished writers upon 
mental philosophy '! 

Advantages of a student's some- 
times writing poetry 1 

With what, are the memories of 
most persons filled 1 

Why may there be a great many 
degrees of assent ? 

Advantage of conversing with in- 
feriors 1 

What passages of poetry are most 
worthy of being committed to me- 
mory 1 

W T hat word is often used to signify 
the faculties of retention, recollec- 
tion and storing up ideas in the 
mind 1 

What word signifies the art of 
persuasion ? 

How should we proceed in study- j 
ing a science, when we have learac | 
a short compendium ? 

Meaning of memorize? ... 

How may we avoid forgetting and j 
losing the greater part of our most 
valuable mental acquisitions 1 

What direction concerning assent 
can hardly be too often repeated 1 

In what studies, are diagrams and 
other visible representations pecu- 
liarly useful ? 

To what extent, have Demosthe- 
nes and Cicero acquired immortal 
fame ? 

What word signifies committing 
to memory 1 

What bodily organ seems always 
to be affected, when ideas are ac- 
quired ? 

Into what, should we not plunge, 
immediately after attending upon 
instruction 1 

For what purpose, has God given 
reason to every man 1 

Of what does Zoology treat 1 

To which, is eloquence most need- 
ful, a minister or a lawyer 1 

Why did Watts suppose the ex- 
istence of animal spirits 1 



[ Why should not children be taught 
: wholly by way of sport and play 1 

Why should we not promise never 
j to change our opinion 1 
i Of what, does ornithology treat % 
Why is eloquence very desirable 
: in a preacher 1 

i Grand direction for improving 
: every faculty 1 

Present state of infant schools, 
1832? 

What are some of the things to be 
considered in ascertaining the causes 
of effects ? 

Meaning of entomology ? 

Why is some eloquence desirable 
in a lawyer 1 

Proper business of a critic? 

From what faculty of the mind, 
does Watts say, that all the others 
draw all their beauty and perfection : 

What if we scarcely ever use our 
memories I 

If we would remember new words 
or things, with what, should we 
associate them ? 

What are to be considered, when 
we would ascertain what are the 
causes of certain effects 1 

Meaning of ichthyology 1 

Why is it not desirable that a 
lawyer should be very eloquent? 

Of what, is memory the store- 
house 1 

Why should not some things be 
memorized, merely to strengthen the 
memory 1 

Which should be learnt first, 
things, or their names 1 

How may we often recover an 
absent idea? 

What parts should we omit, when 
we begin to learn a science *J 

Meaning of botany 3 

Mention some reasons for attend- 
ing to poetry ? 

What is the consequence of a 
preacher's reading his sermons bad- 
ly 1 

Why should things and their 
names be learnt nearly at the same 
time! 

How do most people come by their 
opinions 1 

Of what, must we take a survey, 
in order to judge of any part of a 
science ? 



End. 






